This study was conducted to determine some physicochemical characteristics and bioactive compounds of Turkish pine nut cold pressed oil. The moisture content, total protein amount and crude oil yield of the pine nut were 3.18%, 31.46% and 35.58% respectively. The fatty acid profile, tocopherol and sterol contents of this oil were characterized. Linoleic acid (46.39%) was found to be the predominant fatty acid followed by palmitic (6.3%), stearic (3.5%), gadoleic (0.81%), linolenic (0.58%), eicosadienoic (0.49%), oleic (37.73%), behenic (0.13%), palmitoleic (0.1%), margaric (0.08%), myristic (0.06%) and heptadecenoic acid (0.05%). Regarding tocopherol composition, α-tocopherol (174.48 µg/g), γ-tocopherol (485.92 µg/g) and α-tocotrienol (2004.65 µg/g) were major ingredients in the pine nut oil. Regarding sterol composition, pine nut oil was determined to have remarkably high content of β-sitosterol (76.15%). The other sterols present in the oil were campesterol (15.60%), sitostanol (6.46%), D-5,24-stigmastadienol (1.43%) and ergosterol (0.36%). The most abundant triacylglycerol (TAG) was LLL (trilinolein) (11.5867%) followed by OLnL (Oleolinolenolinolein) (0.7302%), PLnL (Palmitolinolenolinolein) (0.1422%) and PoLL (Palmitoleodilinolein) (0.0826%).
Rare sugars are of great interest as alternative sweeteners because they are beneficial for human health and have a high industrial value. The existence of rare sugars in nature in very limited quantities has encouraged studies to convert common sugars obtained from plants into rare sugars by enzymatic, chemical or other methods. D-allulose, which has a very important place among rare sugars, is a sugar that stands out with its low calorie and sweetness very close to sucrose. It has the ability to regulate many biological functions such as lowering blood glucose level, improving insulin resistance, reducing fat accumulation in the body and reducing fever, as well as having high solubility and positive effects on food tissue, making the use of this sugar more efficient in food processing. D-allulose is known as "indigestible carbohydrate". It occurs naturally in many fruits and beverages and some cereal products. Today, D-allulose can be produced in many ways such as plant extraction, chemical synthesis, enzymatic conversion and can be safely used in the production of some foodstuffs. In this review, D-allulose production methods are presented, differences in these methods and their advantages and disadvantages are compared to each other.
Rare sugars are becoming more and more popular around the world. Rare sugars are described as "monosaccharides and their derivatives which are very rare in nature" according to International Society of Rare Sugars (ISRS) (Muniruzzaman et al., 2016). One of these sugars, D-allulose (D-psicose), has been the focus of rare sugars for human beings (Hashii et al., 2015). Although rare sugars are found in very small amounts in nature, they have so many biological functions and great potential of use in the pharmaceutical, pharmacology, cosmetics, food industry, aroma industry, and many other industrial areas (Li et al., 2013;Tang, 2012). Since rare sugars are present in an extremely small amount in nature, it is hard to extract them from natural sources. Therefore, many chemical and enzymatic methods have been developed to synthesize rare sugars from common sugars (Wen et al., 2016). D-allulose, which has a very important place among rare sugars, is a calorie-free sweetener and has the ability to regulate many biological functions such as lowering blood glucose levels, improving insulin resistance, reducing body fat accumulation, and reducing fever (O'Charoen et al., 2014;Yoshihara et al., 2006;Zhang et al., 2016). D-allulose has been used as a healthy sweetener in the food industry as it has an energy of only 0.39 kcal/g and prevents many diseases that affect the quality of life (Hadipernata & Ogawa, 2016;Ushijima, 2014). Itoh et al. (1994) isolated D-tagatose 3-epimerase enzyme fromPseudomonas sp. ST-24 and used this enzyme in allulose production .Using this microorganism, they produced 90 g of allulose from 500 g of D-fructose in 10 days (Li et al., 2013). However, a new method was developed by Takeshita et al. (2000) using immobilized Dtagatose 3-epimerase, which enables serial production of allulose by continuous epimerization of D-fructose, and thanks to this method rare sugar studies have started to make progress. Three enzyme groups are mainly used for the conversion of monosaccharides to each other. Two of these are keto-aldol isomerases (EC 5.3.1) and
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