Research on astronaut health and model organisms have revealed six features of spaceflight biology that guide our current understanding of fundamental molecular changes that occur during space travel. The features include oxidative stress, DNA damage, mitochondrial dysregulation, epigenetic changes (including gene regulation), telomere length alterations, and microbiome shifts. Here we review the known hazards of human spaceflight, how spaceflight affects living systems through these six fundamental features, and the associated health risks of space exploration. We also discuss the essential issues related to the health and safety of astronauts involved in future missions, especially planned long-duration and Martian missions.

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November 20, 2010, marked a significant milestone in the annals of human endeavors in space since it was the twelfth anniversary of one of the most challenging and complex construction projects ever attempted by humans away from our planet: The construction of the International Space Stations. On November 20, 1998, the Zarya Control Module was launched. With this simple, almost unnoticed launch in the science community, the construction of a continuously staffed research platform, in Low Earth Orbit, was underway. This paper discusses the research that was performed by many occupants of this research platform during the year celebrating its twelfth anniversary. The main objectives of this paper are fourfold: (1) to discuss the integrated manner in which science planning/replanning and prioritization during the execution phase of an increment is carried out across the United States Orbital Segment since that segment is made of four independent space agencies; (2) to discuss and summarize the research that was performed during increments 16 and 17 (October 2007 to October 2008). The discussion for these two increments is primarily focused on the main objectives of each investigation and its associated hypotheses that were investigated. Whenever available and approved, preliminary research results are also discussed for each of the investigations performed during these two increments; (3) to compare the planned research portfolio for these two increments versus what was actually accomplished during the execution phase in order to discuss the challenges associated with planning and performing research in a space laboratory located over 240 miles up in space, away from the ground support team; (4) to briefly touch on the research portfolio of increments 18 and 19/20 as the International Space Station begins its next decade in Low Earth Orbit.

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<p>ESA’s Exploration Programme, recently renamed “Terrae Novae”, encompasses all ESA’s human and robotic activities related to the exploration and utilisation of Earth Orbit, Moon and Mars.  Its vision is to expand Europe’s human presence into the solar system using robotic missions as precursors, with the horizon goal of human Mars exploration; and to do this for science, economic benefits, to promote global cooperation and for inspiration<sup>[1]</sup>.  In autumn 2020, ESA initiated a two-year long project to define the Terrae Novae long-term strategy, looking to 2030 and beyond. This abstract provides an introduction to the objectives of the project and summarises the progress and results to date.</p> <p> </p> <p>It is the ultimate goal of the strategy work to provide a lighthouse, to enable a steady orientation and long-term navigation of Europe’s decision makers on their voyage beyond the current horizons. The strategy work does not revisit the fundamental goals of ESA’s exploration programme as stated above;  instead, it is preparing the next decisions in implementation that will have to be taken by ESA Member States at the at the ESA Council meeting at ministerial level in 2022 (CM22). Decisions will be required to maintain long term European capabilities (e.g. in Low Earth Orbit (LEO)) and to prepare the next steps (e.g. for lunar surface exploration and preparations to enable humans to Mars). ESA is already anticipating a significant increase in it's request for Exploration Programme funding at CM22.</p> <p> </p> <p>The Agenda 2025 of the new ESA Director General addresses challenges and objectives for ESA in the next four years, with an outlook to 2035<sup>[2]</sup>. Being ambitious is the keyword in this Agenda, in order to position a transformed ESA in an ever more world-wide competitive arena, by “<em>making space for Europe”</em>.</p> <p>In a fast evolving international context, the challenging task of the strategy project is to position Europe to realise its exploration ambition in two dimensions.</p> <p>The presentation will include a status on the strategy development work including the initial results that show options for an integrated exploration roadmap for Europe to 2040. Stakeholder consultation (Member States, Industry, Science Community etc) will continue throughout 2021 into 2022 with refinements of the strategy expected until finalisation and approval by ESA Member States around mid 2022.</p> <div><br /> <div> <p>[1]http://esamultimedia.esa.int/multimedia/publications/ESA_Space_Exploration_Strategy/offline/download.pdf</p> </div> <div> <p>[2]Agenda 2025 of the ESA Director General (https://download.esa.int/docs/ESA_Agenda_2025_final.pdf)</p> <p> </p> <p> </p> <p> </p> </div> </div>