Overall, there was more support for a one-factor model of EDE data than for a multi-factorial model. It may be more appropriate to use Global EDE scores than individual subscale scores for research purposes.

Background: Several studies show that proteins, including whey and casein, are more satiating than carbohydrates. It follows that skim milk would be more satiating than sugar-rich beverages. However, this has yet to be shown. Objective: The objective was to investigate the effects of drinking skim milk in comparison with a fruit drink at breakfast on selfreported postmeal satiety and energy intake at lunch. Design: In a randomized crossover trial, 34 overweight women (n = 21) and men (n = 13) attended 2 sessions 1 wk apart. At each session, participants consumed a fixed-energy breakfast together with either 600 mL skim milk (25 g protein, 36 g lactose, ,1 g fat; 1062 kJ) or 600 mL fruit drink (,1 g protein, 63 g sugar, ,1 g fat; '1062 kJ). Participants provided satiety ratings throughout the morning. Four hours after breakfast they consumed an ad libitum lunch, and energy intake was assessed. Results: Participants consumed significantly less energy at lunch after consuming skim milk (mean: 2432 kJ; 95% CI: 2160, 2704 kJ) than after consuming the fruit drink (mean: 2658 kJ; 95% CI: 2386, 2930 kJ), with a mean difference of '8.5% (P , 0.05). In addition, self-reports of satiety were higher throughout the morning after consumption of skim milk than after consumption of the fruit drink (P , 0.05) with the differences becoming larger over the 4 h (P , 0.05). Conclusion: Consumption of skim milk, in comparison with a fruit drink, leads to increased perceptions of satiety and to decreased energy intake at a subsequent meal. This trial was registered with the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry at www.anzctr.org. au as ACTRN12608000510347.

Background: Regular consumption of diets with increased protein or fibre intakes may benefit body weight and composition and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Lupin flour is a novel food ingredient high in protein and fibre. Objective: To investigate the effects of a lupin-enriched diet, during and following energy restriction, on body weight and composition and cardiovascular disease risk factors in overweight individuals. Design: Participants (n ¼ 131) were recruited to a 12-month parallel-design trial. They were randomly assigned to consume lupin-enriched foods or matching high-carbohydrate control foods. All participants underwent 3 months of weight loss, 1 month of weight stabilization and 8 months of weight maintenance. Body weight and composition and cardiovascular disease risk factors were assessed at baseline, 4 and 12 months. Results: Lupin, relative to control, did not significantly influence (mean difference (95% CI)) weight loss at 4 months (0.1 kg (À1.2, 1.4)) and 12 months (À0.6 kg (À2.0, 0.8)), maintenance of weight loss from 4 to 12 months (À0.7 kg (À1.83, 0.48)) or measures of body fat and fat-free mass. Relative to control, 24-h ambulatory systolic (À1.3 mm Hg (À2.4, À0.3), P ¼ 0.016) and diastolic (À1.0 mm Hg (À1.9, À0.2), P ¼ 0.021) blood pressures were lower at 12 months but not at 4 months; fasting insulin concentrations and homeostasis model assessment (HOMA) scores were significantly lower at 4 months (À1.2 mU l -1 (À1.3, À1.1), P ¼ 0.004 and À0.6 units (À1.0, À0.19), P ¼ 0.004) and 12 months (À1.3 mU l -1 (À1.4, À1.1), Po0.001 and À0.7 units (À1.1, À0.24), P ¼ 0.002). Conclusions: A diet higher in protein and fibre derived from lupin-enriched foods does not enhance weight loss or improve the maintenance of weight loss. However, such a diet may provide cardiovascular health benefits in terms of insulin sensitivity and blood pressure.

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Addition of fibre or protein to carbohydrate-rich foods can reduce the glycaemic response to those foods. This may assist with glycaemic management in individuals with type 2 diabetes. Lupin is a legume rich in fibre and protein. We assessed the acute effects of lupin-and soya-based beverages on glucose and insulin responses in type 2 diabetic individuals. We hypothesised that the lupin and soya beverages would lower the acute glycaemic response compared with a control beverage containing no protein or fibre, and that lupin would reduce the postprandial glucose more than soya. In a randomised, controlled, cross-over trial, twenty-four diabetic adults (nineteen men and five women) attended three testing sessions, each 1 week apart. At each session, participants consumed a beverage containing 50 g glucose (control), 50 g glucose plus lupin kernel flour with 12·5 g fibre and 22 g protein (lupin), or 50 g glucose plus 12·5 g fibre and 22 g protein from soya isolates (soya). Serum glucose, insulin and C-peptide were measured periodically for 4 h following beverage consumption. Compared with the control beverage, the 4 h post-beverage glucose response was lower (P,0·001), and the 4 h post-beverage insulin and C-peptide responses were higher (P, 0·001) for lupin and soya. Glucose (P¼0·25) and C-peptide (P¼ 0·07) responses did not differ significantly between lupin and soya, but lupin resulted in a lower insulin response compared with soya (P¼ 0·013). Adding lupin or soya to a carbohydrate-rich beverage reduces glycaemia acutely in type 2 diabetic individuals. This may have a beneficial role in glycaemic management.