The neural mechanisms that support the late postnatal development of spatial navigation are currently unknown. We investigated this in rats and found that an increase in the duration of AMPAR-mediated synaptic responses in the hippocampus was related to the emergence of spatial navigation. More specifically, spontaneous alternation rate, a behavioral indicator of hippocampal integrity, increased at the end of the third postnatal week in association with increases in AMPAR response duration at SC-CA1 synapses and synaptically driven postsynaptic discharge of CA1 pyramidal neurons. Pharmacological prolongation of glutamatergic synaptic transmission in juveniles increased the spontaneous alternation rate and CA1 postsynaptic discharge and reduced the threshold for the induction of activitydependent synaptic plasticity at SC-CA1 synapses. A decrease in GluA1 and increases in GluA3 subunit and transmembrane AMPAR regulatory protein (TARP) expression at the end of the third postnatal week provide a molecular explanation for the increase in AMPAR response duration and reduced efficacy of AMPAR modulators with increasing age. A shift in the composition of AMPARs and increased association with AMPAR protein complex accessory proteins at the end of the third postnatal week likely "turns on" the hippocampus by increasing AMPAR response duration and postsynaptic excitability and reducing the threshold for activitydependent synaptic potentiation.

Overproduction and pruning during development is a phenomenon that can be observed in the number of organisms in a population, the number of cells in many tissue types, and even the number of synapses on individual neurons. The sculpting of synaptic connections in the brain of a developing organism is guided by its personal experience, which on a neural level translates to specific patterns of activity. Activity-dependent plasticity at glutamatergic synapses is an integral part of neuronal network formation and maturation in developing vertebrate and invertebrate brains. As development of the rodent forebrain transitions away from an over-proliferative state, synaptic plasticity undergoes modification. Late developmental changes in synaptic plasticity signal the establishment of a more stable network and relate to pronounced perceptual and cognitive abilities. In large part, activation of glutamate-sensitive N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors regulates synaptic stabilization during development and is a necessary step in memory formation processes that occur in the forebrain. A developmental change in the subunits that compose NMDA receptors coincides with developmental modifications in synaptic plasticity and cognition, and thus much research in this area focuses on NMDA receptor composition. We propose that there are additional, equally important developmental processes that influence synaptic plasticity, including mechanisms that are upstream (factors that influence NMDA receptors) and downstream (intracellular processes regulated by NMDA receptors) from NMDA receptor activation. The goal of this review is to summarize what is known and what is not well understood about developmental changes in functional plasticity at glutamatergic synapses, and in the end, attempt to relate these changes to maturation of neural networks.

Severe early life stress has long been associated with neuropsychological disorders in adulthood, including depression, schizophrenia, post-traumatic stress disorder, and memory dysfunction. To some extent, all of these conditions involve dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and reduced negative feedback inhibition of cortisol release in adulthood. However, the time course for mental health and hormonal outcomes across life stages and the attributes of early life stress that direct the behavioral and biological alterations is not fully understood. We designed our studies to compare outcomes of the two most common maternal deprivation schedules on cognitive ability prior to adulthood. We exposed rat pups to daily or randomly spaced maternal separation bouts within the first 3 weeks of life and examined cognitive performance, neurotrophic signaling, and stress and immune system markers during puberty. We found that the daily separation schedule impaired spatial learning while the randomly spaced schedule did not alter maze performance relative to normally reared control animals. Animals that underwent daily separation showed a tendency for reduced body weight compared to the randomly spaced condition, but there were no differences in adrenal weight. Thymus weight normalized by body weight was increased following daily separation compared to random separation and control conditions. Plasma corticosterone levels measured after behavior testing did not differ amongst experimental groups and there was no impact of TrKB receptor inhibition. Combined, the results show that different early life stress schedules produce different behavioral and biological outcomes when measured at puberty. Combined with prior findings from more mature animals, the results presented here suggest that daily neonatal stress produces varied alterations in spatial cognition at different life stages with a transient learning deficit at puberty preceding a more persistent and a progressive memory impairment through adulthood and into aging.

Neural circuits in mammalian brains consist of large numbers of different cell types having different functional properties. To better understand the separate roles of individual neuron types in specific aspects of spatial learning and memory, we perturbed the function of principal neurons in vivo during maze performance or in hippocampal slices during recording of evoked excitatory synaptic potentials. Transgenic mice expressing the Drosophila allatostatin receptor (AlstR) in cortical and hippocampal pyramidal cells were tested on an elevated plus maze, in a Y-maze, and in the Morris water maze. Relative to a control cohort, AlstR-positive mice treated with allatostatin exhibited no difference in open arm dwell time on the elevated plus maze or total number of arm entries in a Y-maze, but displayed reduced spontaneous alternation. When animals received massed or spaced training trials in the Morris water maze, and the peptide was delivered prior to an immediate probe, no effects on performance were observed. When the peptide was delivered during a probe trial performed 24 h after seven days of spaced training, allatostatin delivery to AlstR positive mice enhanced direct navigation to the escape platform. Combined, these results suggest that cortical and hippocampal pyramidal neurons are required during spatial decisionmaking in a novel environment and compete with other neural systems after extended training in a long-term reference memory task. In hippocampal slices collected from AlstR positive animals, allatostatin delivery produced frequency dependent alterations in the Schaffer collateral fiber volley (attenuated accommodation at 100 Hz) and excitatory postsynaptic potential (attenuated facilitation at 5 Hz). Combined, the neural and behavioral discoveries support the involvement of short-term plasticity of Schaffer collateral axons and synapses during exploration of a novel environment and during initial orientation to a goal in a well-learned setting.