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Background and objectives Pulse flours are produced by dry grinding pulses. Currently, no standards exist for the particle size of pulse flours. The objective of this study was to investigate how particle size affected the flour and bread‐baking properties of commercially milled pulse flours and those produced using a Ferkar mill. Findings Finer pulse flours tended to have greater starch damage, lower water absorption capacity (WAC), and higher peak and final viscosities. Navy bean flour had a larger particle size distribution, lower starch damage, greater WAC, and lower peak and final viscosities due to presence of hull. Red lentil flour had a larger particle size distribution and higher starch damage than yellow pea flour. Bread made with finer pulse flours had better bread scores and a tighter, less open crumb structure. Bread volume was not affected by flour particle size, nor were the sensory properties of the bread in most cases. Conclusions Particle size affected flour and bread‐baking properties of pulse flours indicating that particle size should be considered when formulating pulse‐based breads. Flours milled from whole pulses will have larger particle size distributions due to the presence of hull. Seed hardness will affect the grinding properties of pulses which will affect particle size and starch damage. Significance and novelty Standardization of particle size for pulse flours would allow for consistency when sourcing flours from different suppliers. However, given that different particle size distributions may be better suited to certain applications than others, it may be more useful if suppliers specify the particle size similar to what is done with oat ingredients.

Background and objectives There is a growing global interest in partially replacing wheat flour with pulse flours in foods, including bread. However, undesirable flavors associated with pulse flours, especially yellow pea flour, have limited their use in foods. Pretreating pulses prior to milling offers a possible solution for improving the flavor of pulse flours. The objective of this research was to examine the effect of oven roasting and Revtech roasting (with and without steam) on the compositional, functional, and bread baking properties of whole yellow peas. Findings Regardless of the roasting method used, a roasting temperature of 120°C resulted in flours that retained good functionality and bread baking properties with less detrimental changes in flour color. Bread made with peas roasted at 120°C also had reduced aroma and flavor properties compared to bread made with untreated peas. Conclusions The strong aroma and flavor properties of yellow peas can be reduced by pretreating the peas prior to milling using conventional oven roasting and Revtech roasting. By selecting the appropriate roasting temperature, flour functionality for bread baking can be maintained. Significance and novelty Roasting is a useful premilling treatment for yellow peas. Reducing the off‐flavors associated with pulses while maintaining flour functionality will allow for greater use of pulse flours in formulating foods.

Background and objectives Although there is growing interest in partially replacing wheat flour with pulse flours in bread, the flavor of pulse flours can limit their use. Heat treating pulse flours, with and without the addition of steam, was examined to determine whether the flavor of split yellow pea flour (SYPF) and whole navy bean flour (WNBF) could be improved without altering flour functionality and bread baking properties. Findings Significant temperature × steam interactions were found for most flour parameters including pasting properties, water absorption capacity (WAC), starch damage, and color. Protein, starch, and flour particle size were altered as were pasting and farinograph properties of the pulse/wheat flour blends. Differences in specific volume, color, and C‐cell properties were more evident in the breads made with the treated WNBFs likely due to the different bread formulation used and the presence of hull in the flour. Conclusions Processing the SYPF and the WNBF at 120 and 140°C with steam improved the aroma and flavor of the bread while maintaining good flour functionality and bread baking properties. Significance and novelty Heating treating pulse flours with the addition of steam successfully reduced the objectionable aroma and flavor characteristics associated with SYPF and WNBF. Eliminating undesirable aroma and flavor properties provides a greater opportunity for the inclusion of pulse flours in foods to enhance their nutritional properties.

Pulses, including peas, are a good source of protein, dietary fiber, folic acid, and iron and are reported to reduce the risk for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. However, pulse ingredients present a known challenge as they exhibit a grassy/beany off-flavor. Heat treatment in some cases can decrease this off-flavor. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of substitution of 20% split yellow pea (SYP) flour treated by Revtech thermal processing at 140°C with 10% steam (RT10%) and without steam (RT0%) for wheat flour in bread on the sensory attributes, acceptability, nutrient composition, firmness, color, and pH. RT10% was more acceptable overall than bread with untreated pea flour (USYP) or RT0% as assessed by 110 consumers. Sensory attributes were defined and measured on 15-cm line scales by an 11 member trained panel. Attributes associated with RT10% included wheaty, sweet, and yeast aromas and wheaty flavor, whereas attributes associated with USYP and RT0% were pea and nutty aroma and flavor. Although firmness and dryness were higher in RT10%, the acceptability of the bread texture was not affected. This sample contained significantly higher protein and lower carbohydrate than the wheat sample.Practical Application: Revtech (RT), a novel thermal process, when applied at 140°C with steam to split yellow pea (SYP) flour successfully increased the acceptability of white pan bread fortified at 20% compared to bread fortified with RT 140°C with no steam, and untreated SYP flours. This could be due to its association with wheaty aroma and flavor attributes rather than the pea aroma and flavor attributes of the other two breads.

Background and objectives Pulse flours can impart off‐flavors limiting their use in foods. The objective of this study was to examine the flour and bread making properties of whole and split yellow peas treated with dry and steam heat used as a premilling treatment. Findings Particle size distributions and pasting properties of flours milled from heat‐treated peas were altered, and starch damage was reduced compared to flours milled from untreated peas. Breads made with flour milled from heat‐treated peas had similar firmness to breads made with flour milled from untreated peas with no change in volume and minimal impact on crumb structure. Changes in crumb color (lower L*, higher a*) were consistent with color changes observed in the flours. Heat treating whole peas produced breads with decreased aroma, flavor, and aftertaste, whereas heat treating split peas produced breads with lower intensities of aroma, flavor, bitterness, and aftertaste and increased acceptability. Conclusions Revtech dry and steam heating of whole and split yellow peas as a premilling treatment successfully reduced off‐flavors with minimal changes to flour and bread making properties. Significance and novelty Heat treating pulses prior to milling offers greater opportunities for incorporating pulse flours in foods.

The amino acid asparagine is considered the rate limiting precursor in the formation of acrylamide in cereal based baked foods. However, there are no data on the quantity of this precursor in Canadian wheat. Wholemeal and white flour samples obtained from 30 Canadian Hard Red Spring (Canada HRS) wheat grown in the Prairie Provinces were analysed for asparagine content by liquid chromatography. The asparagine content varied from 302 to 965 and 116 to 336 µg/ g for wholemeal and white flour, respectively. Therefore, wheat grown in Canada has similar asparagine levels to wheat grown in other parts of the world. Analysis of variance suggested that asparagine content is significantly affected by genotype (p < 0.001), suggesting that breeding strategies could be investigated to produce cultivars with lower levels of this amino acid. Few significant correlations were observed between wheat and flour quality parameters and asparagine content, although there was a tendency towards weaker dough strength indices with increasing asparagine content.

Background and objectives:There is interest in partially replacing wheat flour with pulse flours in bread. However, flavor of pulse flours may be detrimental to the final product. Processing pulses prior to milling, using micronization and pregermination (early seed germination without radicle emergence), was investigated as a way to improve the flavor of yellow pea flour while maintaining or improving flour functionality. Findings: Micronization and pregermination of peas prior to milling resulted in changes to flour particle size, color, and compositional and functional properties of the flours. Peas tempered to 18%-20% and micronized to 105-110°C produced a flour that was similar in baking properties to the flour milled from untreated peas with the exception of crumb firmness and aroma and flavor of the bread. All bread made from micronized peas tended to have reduced crumb firmness and improved aroma and flavor properties compared to bread made with untreated peas. Results for the pregerminated peas showed that the flour had higher starch damage and WAC and lower peak and final viscosities compared to the flour milled from untreated peas. Bread baked from pregerminated peas had lower bread quality in terms of bread scores, volume, crumb color, and C-cell properties, but the bread had reduced crumb firmness and improved aroma and flavor properties, compared to bread made with untreated peas. Conclusions: Both micronization and pregermination were suitable premilling treatments for yellow peas. Pregermination, however, warrants additional research to determine whether flour and baking properties can be improved. Significance and novelty: Pretreating yellow peas using either micronization or pergermination prior to milling were successful in reducing undesirable flavors associated with pea flour. Depending on the treatment and conditions used, flour functionality and bread-baking properties were maintained. K E Y W O R D Sfunctional properties, micronization, pea flour, pregermination, premilling treatment, pulse flour 896 | FROHLICH et aL. | MATERIALS AND METHODS | MaterialsWhole yellow peas were sourced from Avena Foods. Straight grade wheat flour, milled from a grist of Canadian Western Spring Wheat (CWRS) and English wheat, was sourced from Nelstrop William & Co Ltd. Treated and untreated peas were stored for 12 weeks in sealed plastic bags at ambient conditions prior to milling. Milled flours and flour blends (20% pea flour/80% wheat flour) were stored in 20-L food grade plastic pails with lids for 4-8 weeks at 22°C, 50% RH until required for baking. | Methods | Micronizing of peasThree seed moisture conditions (8% or original seed moisture, and 14%-16% and 18%-20% targeted final moisture) How to cite this article: Frohlich P, Young G, Bourré L, et al. Effect of premilling treatments on the functional and bread-baking properties of whole yellow pea flour using micronization and pregermination. Cereal Chem. 2019;96:895-907.