Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), produced during various electron transfer reactions in vivo are generally considered to be deleterious to cells1. In the mammalian haematopoietic system, haematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) contain low ROS levels, but unexpectedly, the common myeloid progenitors (CMPs), produce significantly elevated levels of ROS2. The functional significance of this difference in ROS level in the two progenitor types remains unresolved2,3. Here, we show that Drosophila multipotent haematopoietic progenitors which are largely akin to the mammalian myeloid progenitors4 display elevated levels of ROS under in vivo physiological conditions, which is downregulated upon differentiation. Scavenging the ROS from these haematopoietic progenitors using in vivo genetic tools, retards their differentiation into mature blood cells. Conversely, increasing the haematopoietic progenitor ROS beyond their basal level triggers precocious differentiation into all three mature blood cell types found in Drosophila, through a signaling pathway that involves JNK and FoxO activation as well as Polycomb downregulation. We conclude that the developmentally regulated, moderately high ROS level in the progenitor population sensitizes them to differentiation, and establishes a signaling role for ROS in the regulation of haematopoietic cell fate. Our results lead to a model that could be extended to reveal a probable signaling role for ROS in the differentiation of CMPs in mammalian haematopoietic development and oxidative stress response.

Summary Mitochondrial dysfunction is usually associated with aging. To systematically characterize the compensatory stress signaling cascades triggered in response to muscle mitochondrial perturbation, we analyzed a Drosophila model of muscle mitochondrial injury. We find that mild muscle mitochondrial distress preserves mitochondrial function, impedes the age-dependent deterioration of muscle function and architecture, and prolongs lifespan. Strikingly, this effect is mediated by at least two pro-longevity compensatory signaling modules: one involving a muscle-restricted redox-dependent induction of genes that regulate the mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPRmt); and another involving the transcriptional induction of the Drosophila ortholog of insulin-like growth factor binding protein 7, which systemically antagonizes insulin signaling, and facilitates mitophagy. Given that several secreted IGF-binding proteins (IGFBPs) exist in mammals, our work raises the possibility that muscle mitochondrial injury in humans may similarly result in the secretion of IGFBPs, with important ramifications for diseases associated with aberrant insulin signaling.

During electron transport, the mitochondrion generates ATP and reactive oxygen species (ROS), a group of partially reduced and highly reactive metabolites of oxygen. In this in vivo genetic analysis in Drosophila melanogaster, we establish that disruption of complex I of the mitochondrial electron transport chain specifically retards the cell cycle during the G1-S transition. The mechanism involves a specific signaling cascade initiated by ROS and transduced by ASK-1, JNK, FOXO and the Drosophila p27 homolog, Dacapo. On the basis of our data combined with previous analyses of the system, we conclude that mitochondrial dysfunction activates at least two retrograde signals to specifically enforce a G1-S cell cycle checkpoint. One such signal involves an increase in AMP production and downregulation of cyclin E protein; another independent pathway involves increased ROS and upregulation of Dacapo. Thus, our results indicate that the mitochondrion can use AMP and ROS at sublethal concentrations as independent signaling molecules to modulate cell cycle progression.

The precise control of the cell cycle requires regulation by many intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Whether the metabolic status of the cell exerts a direct control over cell cycle checkpoints is not well understood. We isolated a mutation, tenured (tend), in a gene encoding cytochrome oxidase subunit Va. This mutation causes a drop in intracellular ATP to levels sufficient to maintain cell survival, growth, and differentiation, but not to enable progression through the cell cycle. Analysis of this gene in vivo and in cell lines shows that a specific pathway involving AMPK and p53 is activated that causes elimination of Cyclin E, resulting in cell cycle arrest. We demonstrate that in multiple tissues the mitochondrion has a direct and specific role in enforcing a G1-S cell cycle checkpoint during periods of energy deprivation.

Biological techniques KEYWORDS microscopy, ROS, reactive oxygen species ROS production in vivo by comparing the phenotype of cells mutant for genes encoding mitochondrial proteins with their wild-type neighbors. We also show from staining of the germarium that this technique is capable of detecting different levels of ROS production among cells within the same tissue. The whole protocol, from dissection to capturing of images by confocal microscopy can be completed within 2 to 3 hours; and it can be adapted for use in virtually any Drosophila tissue.

The binding of Hedgehog to its receptor Patched causes de-repression of Smoothened resulting in the activation of the Hedgehog pathway. Here, we show that Smo activation is dependent on the levels of phospholipid, Phosphatidyl Inositol-4 Phosphate (PI4P). Loss of STT4 kinase required for the generation of PI4P exhibits hh-loss of function phenotypes while loss of Sac1 phosphatase required for the degradation of PI4P results in hh-gain of function phenotypes in multiple setting during Drosophila development. Furthermore, loss of Ptc function which results in the activation of Hedgehog pathway also causes an increase in PI4P levels. Sac1 functions downstream of STT4 and Ptc in the regulation of Smo membrane localization and Hh pathway activation. Taken together, our results suggest a model in which Ptc directly or indirectly functions to suppress the accumulation of PI4P. Binding of Hh to Ptc derepresses the levels of PI4P, which in turn promotes Smo activation.

Over the past decade, numerous reports have underscored the similarities between the metabolism of Drosophila and vertebrates, with the identification of evolutionarily conserved enzymes and analogous organs that regulate carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. It is now well established that the major metabolic, energy-sensing and endocrine signaling networks of vertebrate systems are also conserved in flies. Accordingly, studies in Drosophila are beginning to unravel how perturbed energy balance impinges on lifespan and on the ensuing diseases when energy homeostasis goes awry. Here, we highlight several emerging concepts that are at the nexus between obesity, nutrient sensing, metabolic homeostasis and aging. Specifically, we summarize the endocrine mechanisms that regulate carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, and provide an overview of the neuropeptides that regulate feeding behavior. We further describe the various efforts at modeling the effects of high-fat or -sugar diets in Drosophila and the signaling mechanisms involved in integrating organ function. Finally, we draw attention to some of the cardinal discoveries made with these disease models and how these could spur new research questions in vertebrate systems.

SUMMARY The flight muscles of Drosophila are highly enriched with mitochondria; but the mechanism by which mitochondrial complex I (CI) is assembled in this tissue has not been described. We report the mechanism of CI biogenesis in Drosophila flight muscles; and show that it proceeds via the formation of ~315-, ~550-, and ~815 kDa CI assembly intermediates. Additionally, we define specific roles for several CI subunits in the assembly process. In particular, we show that dNDUFS5 is required for converting an ~700 kDa transient CI assembly intermediate into the ~815 kDa assembly intermediate. Importantly, incorporation of dNDUFS5 into CI is necessary to stabilize or promote incorporation of dNDUFA10 into the complex. Our findings highlight the potential of studies of CI biogenesis in Drosophila to uncover the mechanism of CI assembly in vivo; and establish Drosophila as a suitable model organism and resource for addressing questions relevant to CI biogenesis in humans.