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Tributyltin chloride (TBT) is an environmental contaminant that is used as a biocide in antifouling paints. TBT has been shown to induce endocrine-disrupting effects. However, studies evaluating the effects of TBT on the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis are especially rare. The current study demonstrates that exposure to TBT is critically responsible for the improper function of the mammalian HPA axis as well as the development of abnormal morphophysiology in the pituitary and adrenal glands. Female rats were treated with TBT, and their HPA axis morphophysiology was assessed. High CRH and low ACTH expression and high plasma corticosterone levels were detected in TBT rats. In addition, TBT leads to an increased in the inducible nitric oxide synthase protein expression in the hypothalamus of TBT rats. Morphophysiological abnormalities, including increases in inflammation, a disrupted cellular redox balance, apoptosis, and collagen deposition in the pituitary and adrenal glands, were observed in TBT rats. Increases in adiposity and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ protein expression in the adrenal gland were observed in TBT rats. Together, these data provide in vivo evidence that TBT leads to functional dissociation between CRH, ACTH, and costicosterone, which could be associated an inflammation and increased of inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in hypothalamus. Thus, TBT exerts toxic effects at different levels on the HPA axis function.

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The aim of this study was to evaluate whether exercise training (ET) prevents or minimizes cardiac dysfunction and pathological ventricular remodeling in ovariectomized rats subjected to myocardial infarction (MI) and to examine the possible mechanisms involved in this process. Ovariectomized Wistar rats were subjected to either MI or fictitious surgery (Sham) and randomly divided into the following groups: Control, OVX+SHAMSED, OVX+SHAMET, OVX+MISED and OVX+MIET. ET was performed on a motorized treadmill (5x/wk, 60 min/day, 8 weeks). Cardiac function was assessed by ventricular catheterization and Dihydroethidium fluorescence (DHE) was evaluated to analyze cardiac oxidative stress. Histological analyses were made to assess collagen deposition, myocyte hypertrophy and infarct size. Western Blotting was performed to analyze the protein expression of catalase and SOD-2, as well as Gp91phox and AT1 receptor (AT1R). MI-trained rats had significantly increased in +dP/dt and decreased left ventricular end-diastolic pressure compared with MI-sedentary rats. Moreover, oxidative stress and collagen deposition was reduced, as was myocyte hypertrophy. These effects occurred in parallel with a reduction in both AT1R and Gp91phox expression and an increase in catalase expression. SOD-2 expression was not altered. These results indicate that ET improves the functional cardiac parameters associated with attenuation of cardiac remodeling in ovariectomized rats subjected to MI. The mechanism seems to be related to a reduction in the expression of both the AT1 receptor and Gp91phox as well as an increase in the antioxidant enzyme catalase, which contributes to a reduction in oxidative stress. Therefore, ET may be an important therapeutic target for the prevention of heart failure in postmenopausal women affected by MI.

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Organotin compounds, such as tributyltin (TBT), are environment contaminants that induce bioaccumulation and have potential toxic effects on marine species and mammals. TBT have been banned by the International Maritime Organization in 2003. However, the assessment of butyltin and metal contents in marine sediments has demonstrated high residual levels of TBT in some cases exceeding 7000 ng Sn g. The acceptable daily intake (ADI) level for TBT established by the World Health Organization is 0.5 μg/kg bw/day is based on genotoxicity, reproduction, teratogenicity, immunotoxicity, and mainly neurotoxicity. However, their effect on the cardiovascular system is not well understood. In this study, female rats were exposed to 0.5 μg/kg/day of TBT for 15 days with the goal of understanding the effect of TBT on vascular function. Female Wistar rats were treated daily by gavage and divided into control (n = 10) and TBT (n = 10) groups. The aortic rings were incubated with phenylephrine in both the presence and absence of endothelium. The phenylephrine concentration-response curves were generated by exposing endothelium-intact samples to N-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME), apocynin, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, tiron, and allopurinol. Acetylcholine (ACh) and sodium nitroprusside (SNP) were used to evaluate the relaxation response. Exposure to TBT reduced serum 17β-estradiol E levels and increased vascular reactivity. After incubation with L-NAME, the vascular reactivity to phenylephrine was significantly higher. Apocynin, SOD, catalase, and tiron decreased the vascular reactivity to phenylephrine to a significantly greater extent in TBT-treated rats than in the control rat. The relaxation induced by ACh and SNP was significantly reduced in TBT rats. Exposure to TBT induced aortic wall atrophy and increased superoxide anion production and collagen deposition. These results provide evidence that exposing rats to the current ADI for TBT (0.5 μg/kg) for 15 days induced vascular dysfunction due to oxidative stress and morphological damage and should be considered an important cardiovascular risk factor.