This research evaluated the psychometric properties of the Drive for Muscularity Scale (DMS; McCreary & Sasse, 2000) among Italian men and distinguished between heterosexual and gay men. There were 355 participants, of whom 212 were heterosexual and 143 were gay men. A 2-factor solution with a second-order latent factor had a good fit to the data for the whole sample and separately for the 2 groups. The muscle-oriented body image and behavior dimensions loaded on a Drive for Muscularity secondorder factor. The Italian version of the DMS had good reliability and concurrent validity. Gay men reported more preoccupation with their muscle-oriented body image, a greater drive for muscularity, and higher athletic internalization scores than heterosexual men, although sexual orientation did not influence the drive for muscularity's behavioral domain. This study provides evidence for the DMS's validity with Italian-speaking men independent of sexual orientation. Although using both subscales may be desirable for understanding men's drive for muscularity, the global DMS score may also be useful, depending on the research or intervention aims.
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Through a 2 × 2 × 2 quasi experimental design (N = 254), this research investigated if a social campaign eliciting positive emotions and activating moral norms might enhance condom negotiation skills, intended and estimated condom among young women with or without past sexual experience with casual partners. Emotions had a main effect on one of the six condom negotiation strategies we considered; for most of the other variables an interaction effect with moral norms and/or past behaviour emerged. Concerning estimated condom use, positive emotions worked better than negative ones when moral norms were salient. With respect to negotiations skills, positive rather than negative emotions seemed more effective for women with past causal sexual experience. In women without this kind of experience, positive emotions seemed to work better when moral norms were salient. Moral norms had a main effect on negotiation self-efficacy, but not in the predicted direction: when moral norms were more salient women were found to be less confident about their negotiation ability. These results suggest that a message which makes moral norms salient should at the same time elicit positive emotions in order to be effective; moreover, messages should be carefully tailored according to women's past behaviour.
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