HAART can achieve control of viral replication in HIV-1-infected children who adhere to therapy. However, treatment failure is likely unless there is a high level of adherence. Nonadherence to therapy is common and might be the major impediment to successful treatment of children infected with HIV-1.

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) can suppress plasma human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) levels to below the detection limit of ultrasensitive clinical assays. However, HIV-1 persists in cellular reservoirs, and in adults, persistent low-level viremia is detected with more sensitive assays. The nature of this viremia is poorly understood, and it is unclear whether viremia persists in children on HAART, particularly those who start therapy shortly after birth. We therefore developed a reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) assay that allows genotyping of HIV-1 protease even when viremia is present at levels as low as 5 copies of HIV-1 RNA/ml. We demonstrated that viremia persists in children with plasma virus levels below the limit of detection of clinical assays. Viremia was detected even in children who began HAART in early infancy and maintained such strong suppression of viremia that HIV-1-specific antibody responses were absent or minimal. The low-level plasma virus lacked protease inhibitor resistance mutations despite the frequent use of nelfinavir, which has a low mutational barrier to resistance. Protease sequences resembled those of viruses in the latent reservoir in resting CD4 ؉ T cells. Thus, in most children on HAART with clinically undetectable viremia, there is continued virus production without evolution of resistance in the protease gene.

The background for developing conjugate vaccines for shigellosis composed of the O-specific polysaccharide (O-SP) bound to a protein is described elsewhere (C. Y. Chu, R. Schneerson, and J. B. Robbins, submitted for publication). Briefly, there is direct evidence for type (lipopolysaccharide [LPS])-specific protection after infection with the wild type or with attenuated strains of shigellae. Prospective studies of Israeli armed forces recruits show a correlation between preexisting serum immunoglobulin G (IgG) LPS antibodies and resistance to shigellosis (D. Cohen, M. S. Green, C. Block, R. Slephon, and I. Ofek, J. Clin. Microbiol. 29:386-389, 1991). In order to elicit IgG LPS-specific antibodies to Shigella dysenteriae type 1, the O-SP of this pathogen was purified and bound to tetanus toxoid (TT) by three schemes. The most immunogenic used a modification of a published method (C. Y. Chu, R. Schneerson, J. B. Robbins, and S. C. Rastogi, Infect. Immun. 40:245-256, 1983). The resultant O-SP-TT conjugates were stable and elicited high levels of IgG O-SP antibodies and booster responses in young mice when injected subcutaneously in saline at 1/10 the proposed human dose. Adsorption onto alum or concurrent administration with monophosphoryl lipid A enhanced both the IgG and IgM antibody responses to the O-SP of the conjugate; both the nonadsorbed and adsorbed conjugates elicited higher rises of IgG than of IgM antibodies. Clinical evaluations of S. dysenteriae type 1 O-SP-TT conjugates are planned.

Opportunistic infections and deaths are less common among HIV-infected youth in the US in the cART era, but the mortality rate remains elevated. Deaths were associated with poor HIV control and older age. Emerging complications, such as psychiatric, inflammatory, metabolic, and genital tract diseases, need to be addressed.

A longitudinal study of viral reservoirs in children initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in early infancy was undertaken to test the hypothesis that early effective treatment affects the persistence of replication-competent viral latency and the evolution of HIV-1 in resting CD4(+) T cells. An end point dilution culture assay was used to measure the frequencies of latently-infected resting CD4(+) T cells harboring replication-competent virus in early and late treated children. Gag, pol, and env also were sequenced and compared to pretreatment sequences. HIV-1-specific humoral and cellular immune responses were also assessed. Blood samples were obtained from 12 HIV-1-infected children who started HAART at a median of 1.9 months of age and who maintained suppression of HIV-1 replication for up to 5.5 years. Replication-competent HIV-1 was recovered from 10/12 (84%) subjects. Evolution in gag, pol, and env was restricted for years in early-treated children. HAART initiated from early infancy does not prevent the establishment of a reservoir of latent provirus, but does significantly limit the evolution of HIV-1 in viral reservoirs. The effect of early therapy on HIV-1 evolution may have implications for long-term pharmacologic control of HIV-1.

Serious infections with salmonellae remain a threat in many human populations. Despite extensive study of salmonella infections in animals and clinical experience with killed cellular vaccines, there are no vaccines against serotypes other than Sabnonella typhi licensed for human use. Serum antibodies to the 0-specific polysaccharide (O-SP) of salmonellae protect mice against invasive infection. In order to render it immunogenic, we have conjugated the O-SP of Sabnonella typhimurium to carrier proteins by various schemes. O-SP conjugated to tetanus toxoid (0-SP-TT) elicited antibodies in outbred mice after three subcutaneous injections without adjuvant. The O-SP alone elicited no detectable antibody. The antibody response to O-SP-TT was boosted by successive doses and consisted of immunoglobulin G (IgG) and IgM. Most mice only produced antibodies specific for the abequose (0:4 factor) region of the O-SP. Occasional animals also produced antibodies to the core oligosaccharide. Immunized mice were protected against intraperitoneal challenge with S. typhimurium, demonstrating a 160-fold increase in the 50% lethal dose. Passive immunization with conjugate-induced IgM or IgG also protected against challenge. These results indicate that an O-SP-TT conjugate, when given by a route and formulation acceptable for human use, protects mice agalnst challenge with S. typhimurium.

The synthesis, standardization, and immunogenicity in young outbred mice and clinical evaluation in adult volunteers of investigational vaccines designed to induce serum antibodies to the type 5 and type 8 capsular polysaccharides (CPs) of Staphylococcus aureus are described. Conjugates composed of the type 5 CP and a sonicated preparation of a high-molecular-weight type 8 CP bound to a nontoxic recombinant protein derived from Pseudomonas aeruginosa exotoxin A (rEPA) were synthesized. The conjugates were nontoxic and elicited serum CP antibodies after two subcutaneous injections into young outbred mice; a third injection elicited a booster response. The lower-molecular-weight type 8 CP was not immunogenic in the mice, and the high-molecular-weight type 8 CP elicited low levels of antibodies without a booster effect. In the volunteers, neither the conjugates nor the type 8 CP alone caused significant local reactions or fever. The conjugates elicited type-specific antibodies of both the immunoglobulin M (IgM) and IgG classes after the first injection; a second injection 6 weeks later did not stimulate a booster effect. The high-molecular-weight type 8 CP alone, injected once only, elicited levels of IgG and IgM type-specific antibodies similar to those of the conjugate. The vaccine-induced CP antibodies were mostly of the IgGl and IgG2 subclasses and had opsonophagocytic activity. The conjugates elicited IgG antibodies to the native exotoxin A with neutralizing activity. In summary, the type 5 and type 8 conjugates were safe and elicited biologically active antibodies to both the CP and rEPA components.

This paper describes the fabrication of functional optical devices by sectioning quantum-dot-in-nanowires systems with predefined lengths and orientations. This fabrication process requires only two steps, embedding the nanowires in epoxy and using an ultramicrotome to section them across their axis ("nanoskiving"). This work demonstrates the combination of the following four capabilities: (i) the control of the length of the nanowire sections at the nanometer scale; (ii) the ability to process the nanowires after cutting using wet etching; (iii) the possibility of modifying the geometry of the wire by varying the sectioning angle; and (iv) the generation of as many as 120 consecutive slabs bearing nanowires that have uniform size and approximately reproducible lateral patterns and that can subsequently be transferred to different substrates. The quantum dots inside the nanowires are functional and of a high optical quality after the sectioning process and exhibit photoluminescent emission with wavelengths in the range of 650−710 nm.