ObjectiveThe optimal vitamin D intake for nursing women is controversial. Deterioration, at least in bone mass, is reported during lactation. This study evaluated whether vitamin D supplementation during lactation enhances the maternal and infant’s vitamin D status, bone mass and body composition.Design and MethodsAfter term delivery, 174 healthy mothers were randomized to receive 1200 IU/d (800 IU/d+400 IU/d from multivitamins) or 400 IU/d (placebo+400 IU/d from multivitamins) of cholecalciferol for 6 months while breastfeeding. All infants received 400 IU/d of cholecalciferol. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D], iPTH, calcium, urinary calcium, and densitometry were performed in mother-offspring pairs after delivery, and at 3 and 6 months later.ResultsA total of 137 (79%) (n = 70; 1200 IU/d, n = 67; 400 IU/d) completed the study. 25(OH)D was similar in both groups at baseline (13.7 ng/ml vs. 16.1 ng/ml; P = 0.09) and at 3 months (25.7 ng/ml vs. 24.5 ng/ml; P = 0.09), but appeared higher in the 1200 IU/d group at 6 months of supplementation (25.6 ng/ml vs. 23.1 ng/ml; P = 0.009). The prevalence of 25(OH)D <20 ng/ml was comparable between groups at baseline (71% vs. 64%, P = 0.36) but lower in the 1200 IU/d group after 3 months (9% vs. 25%, P = 0.009) and 6 months (14% vs. 30%, P = 0.03). Maternal and infants’ iPTH, calciuria, bone mass and body composition as well as infants’ 25(OH)D levels were not significantly different between groups during the study. Significant negative correlations were noted between maternal 25(OH)D and fat mass (R = −0.49, P = 0.00001), android fat mass (R = −0.53, P = 0.00001), and gynoid fat mass (R = −0.43, P = 0.00001) after 6 months of supplementation.ConclusionsVitamin D supplementation at a dose of 400 IU/d was not sufficient to maintain 25(OH)D >20 ng/ml in nursing women, while 1200 IU/d appeared more effective, but had no effect on breastfed offspring vitamin D status, or changes in the bone mass and the body composition observed in both during breastfeeding.Trial RegistrationClinicalTrials.gov NCT01506557

Background: High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency in pregnancy is recorded. Aim: To establish determinants of postpartum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25(OH)D) levels on mothers and offspring. Methods: 25(OH)D level was measured in cord blood and maternal blood collected ≤3 weeks postpartum. Maternal socioeconomic status, vitamin D intake, sun exposure during pregnancy and maternal and neonatal fat mass (FM; dual X-ray absorptiometry) were assessed within 3 weeks postpartum. Results: A total of 174 mother-offspring pairs were enrolled. Maternal 25(OH)D <20 ng/ml was seen in 32 (51%) of summer and 82 (74%) of winter deliveries. Women with 25(OH)D <20 ng/ml had a 2-fold lower percentage of vitamin D intake of ≥800 IU/day than women with 25(OH)D ≥20 ng/ml (p = 0.02). FM (%) was comparable between groups (p > 0.05). Multiple regression analysis revealed the delivery season, prenatal vitamin D intake ≥800 IU/day and duration of supplementation to be the determinants of maternal 25(OH)D level (R² = 0.26, p < 0.001). Maternal 25(OH)D level, season of birth and duration of maternal supplementation explained 83% of the variance in cord blood 25(OH)D level (R² = 0.83, p < 0.001). Conclusions: The key determinants of higher maternal vitamin D status were the summer-autumn season of delivery and prenatal use of ≥800 IU/day of vitamin D. The cord blood 25(OH)D level was mainly determined by maternal 25(OH)D level and season of birth.

Background: Retinal morphology changes may be associated with prematurity and can lead to visual impairment. Optical coherence tomography angiography may contribute to understanding the pathomechanism of structural and vascular retinal impairment in premature children. The aim of this study was to assess an influence of prematurity, neonatal clinical characteristics, and a history of retinopathy of prematurity (ROP) on the morphology and retinal vascularity of macula in children. Methods: A case–control study of 123 preterm children and 86 full-term children was performed. The age of the subjects was 10.45 years (IQR: 8.12–12.77), while the age of the control group was 11.78 years (IQR: 8.81–13.79). Optical coherence tomography (OCT) and optical coherence tomography angiography (OCTA, angio-OCT) were performed using RTVueXR Avanti (Optovue, Fremont, CA, USA). Ganglion cell complex (GCC), foveal thickness (FT), parafoveal thickness (PFT), size of foveal avascular zone (FAZ) in superficial plexus, superficial capillary vessel density (sVD), deep capillary vessel density (dVD), central choroidal thickness (CCT), and presence of macular hypoplasia were analyzed. The association between OCT/angio-OCT results and clinical characteristics including the degree of ROP and therapy requirements was assessed in preterm infants. Results: Foveal morphology was affected in preterm children with high incidence of foveal hypoplasia (24.77%). GCC was thinner in preterm children compared to controls: avgGG 93 μm vs. 100 μm, p < 0.001. No associations between GCC and gestational age (R = −0.085; p = 0.228) and birth weight (R = −0.054; p = 0.446) were found. FAZ in preterm group was smaller than in controls (0.13 ± 0.09 vs. 0.22 ± 0.09; p < 0.001). FAZ area correlated with gestational age (R = 0.456; p < 0.001) and birth weight (R = 0.472; p < 0.001). Deep vessel density in the fovea was higher in preterm children than in control group (p < 0.001). PFT was significantly lower in preterm children compared to control group. However, increased thickness in the fovea was noted in preterm children (p < 0.001). FT was inversely correlated with gestational age (R = −0.562; p < 0.001) and birth weight (R = −0.508, p < 0.001). CCT was lower in preterm children (312 μm vs. 337.5 μm, p < 0.001) Parameters of GCC and FT were higher in patients with ROP required treatment compared to patients without ROP and spontaneously regressed retinopathy. FAZ was smaller in patients with retinopathy than in preterm children without ROP. Conclusion: Prematurity has a significant negative impact on GCC, macular morphology, and vascularization. In premature children, decreased FAZ, increased FT, and vessel density were strongly associated with gestational age, birth weight, Apgar score, ROP stage, and treatment requirement. Optical coherence tomography angiography is a useful tool for detecting retinal changes in premature children.

No abstract

No abstract