1. Translocation is a popular conservation tool, but the outcomes are variable. Many tactics can be used to improve the probability of success, but a comprehensive summary of these does not exist. This increases the risk that valuable tactics will be overlooked, and inhibits effective communication. 2. We assess the diversity of 'translocation tactics' used in mammal and bird translocations, by reviewing the IUCN/SSC Guidelines for Reintroduction and other Conservation Translocations, 195 peer-reviewed articles and 73 case studies from the IUCN/SSC Global Reintroduction Perspectives Series. 3. We recorded descriptions of every technique used to influence the post-release performance of translocated wildlife. We developed the Translocation Tactics Classification System (TTCS) which defines a collection of 30 tactics and organize them into an ecologically relevant framework. We also assess the occurrence of tactics within the Guidelines, the primary literature and the case studies to evaluate how tactics are communicated within these mediums. 4. Our results indicate that the Guidelines are a valuable resource, but do not exhaustively cover tactics, and that detailed methodological accounts are rarely made publicly accessible. This highlights the need to develop context-specific resources to support the Guidelines, and to develop and exploit mediums that facilitate recording of methodological detail, the tactical rationale behind the design and evaluations of effectiveness. Although some forms of grey literature address this issue, the general lack of information limits the ability to investigate the relationship between tactics and translocation success. 5. Synthesis and applications. The Translocation Tactics Classification System (TTCS) provides a checklist which ensures that the full diversity of tactics is considered when developing translocation processes. Standardizing the communication of tactics, and encouraging detailed accounts of applied methodologies to be recorded, along with the tactical reasoning behind the design, will provide operational models and the data required to conduct broad-scale meta-analyses.

Threatened species recovery programs are increasingly turning to reintroductions to reverse biodiversity loss. Here we present a real-world example where tactics (techniques which influence post-release performance and persistence) and an adaptive management framework (which incorporates feedback between monitoring and future actions) improved reintroduction success. Across three successive trials we investigated the influence of tactics on the effective survival and post-release dispersal of endangered eastern quolls (Dasyurus viverrinus) reintroduced into Mulligans Flat Woodland Sanctuary, Australian Capital Territory. Founders were monitored for 42 days post-release, and probability of survival and post-release dispersal were tested against trial, origin, sex, den sharing and presence of pouch young. We adopted an adaptive management framework, using monitoring to facilitate rapid learning and to implement interventions that improved reintroduction success. Founders released in the first trial were less likely to survive (28.6%, n = 14) than those founders released the second (76.9%, n = 13) and third trials (87.5%, n = 8). We adapted several tactics in the second and third trials, including the selection of female-only founders to avoid elevated male mortality, and post-mating releases to reduce stress. Founders that moved dens between consecutive nights were less likely to survive, suggesting that minimising post-release dispersal can increase the probability of survival. The probability of moving dens was lower in the second and third trials, for females, and when den sharing with another founder. This study demonstrates that, through iterative trials of tactics involving monitoring and learning, adaptive management can be used to significantly improve the success of reintroduction programs.

Reintroductions are used to re-establish populations of species within their indigenous range, but their outcomes are variable. A key decision when developing a reintroduction strategy is whether to include a temporary period of confinement prior to release. Pre-release confinement is primarily used for the purpose of quarantine or as a delayed-release tactic to influence the performance or behaviour of founders post-release. A common difference between these approaches is that quarantine tends to be conducted in ex situ captivity, whereas delayed releases tend to involve in situ confinement at the release site. Although these practices are commonly viewed independently, it may be possible for a single confinement period to be used for both purposes. We tested whether temporarily holding wild eastern bettongs Bettongia gaimardi in ex situ captivity for - days prior to release (delayed release) influenced their body mass, pouch occupancy or survival during the first . years post-release, compared to founders released without confinement (immediate release). Our results suggest that exposing founders to captivity did not alter their body mass or performance post-release, despite being heavier and having fewer pouch young when released. We conclude that, for this species, ex situ captivity does not represent a tactical opportunity to improve post-release performance but can be used for quarantine without affecting the probability of establishment.

Stress is important in reintroduction biology because it can influence mortality, dispersal and recruitment and determine establishment success. As stress is unavoidable during reintroduction, it requires deliberate management. Release tactics (e.g. ‘delayed‐ and immediate‐release’) are often selected specifically based on their presumed effect on physiological stress, yet, the actual physiological effects are seldom tested. Delayed‐release involves pre‐release confinement (in situ), or captivity (ex situ), which can improve post‐release performance in some cases, or induce a detrimental effect in others, especially in wild animals. Quarantine is another common pre‐release practice that requires captivity/confinement carrying similar post‐release physiological implications. We use faecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations (FGM) to evaluate how a delayed‐release involving 95–345 days in captivity influences the stress physiology of wild eastern bettongs (Bettongia gaimardi), compared to an immediate‐release (within 24 h of capture), across the initial 18 months post‐release. The results suggest that FGM concentrations were relatively higher in the delayed‐release group at release, but significantly lower after ca. 2 months of release. We assessed seasonal fluctuations in FGM concentrations, the effect of release tactics on in‐trap behaviour, and the relationship between those behaviours and FGM concentrations. We found that FGM concentrations fluctuated seasonally, but release tactics did not influence behaviour, and that behavioural variations had no relationship with FGM concentrations. Overall our results, coupled with previous research, suggest that an immediate‐release is preferable when quarantine is not required.

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