This paper discussed Cross-Linguistic Transfer (CLT) and Language Proficiency in multilingual education in general and highlighted samples of CLT in Burundi as the existing literature reveals. As there exist CLT on all linguistic levels, this discussion has provided examples of phonological (including phonetics), lexical and semantic, and syntactic transfer. It has been realized that there exist a limited number of publications related to CLT among languages studied in the multilingual education system of Burundi. Yet analyses of CLT would supply interesting samples of linguistic features that are likely to be transferred. This would be useful for both language curriculum designers and language policymakers in deciding which language features to supply in language curriculum materials. Furthermore, teachers would find ways of helping learners to improve their language proficiency based on samples of CLT analysis.

This study aimed at developing content and language integrated English speaking learning materials for the students of international accounting study program to help them learn, practise and improve their speaking skills first in content subjects classes and then in their future career. The study  involved 27 third year students of Accounting Department,  Faculty of Economics, Yogyakarta State University. The data were collected through an interview, classroom observation, and a students’ questionnaire. The research findings show that, the students prefer: business, accounting basics, accounting concepts, and financial accounting accounting contents topics. In terms of classroom activities, students preferred making presentations, discussion, dialogues, role-plays, and making descriptions. The students have difficulties in discussions/debates, pronunciation, grammatical structures, and knowledge of specific vocabulary items. Their priorities for speaking English include presentations, discussions, questions and answers, descriptions, and using specific vocabulary items. Their preferences on the components of the English speaking learning materials include conversations/dialogues, grammatical features, specific vocabulary items, presentations, and discussions/debates. The evaluation of the developed materials falls in the Very Good category for both experts and students’ evaluation.

Codeswitching (CS) is an unavoidable linguistic phenomenon amongst multilingual speakers. Whereas CS has mainly been studied in a sociolinguistic and structural perspective, this article has studied this phenomenon in a psycholinguistic perspective based on the tenets of Competition Model (MacWhinney, B., 1982, 1987). The aim of the study was to analyse how patterns of codeswitching can illustrate the level of language competence among adult speakers. Participants were Burundian educated adult multilingual speakers using both Kirundi (L1), French (chronological L2) and English as languages learned in the multilingual education system of Burundi. Some of the speakers could use Swahili, a language learned outside the formal education (Swahili was not in formal education during the schooling time of the participants in this study). Data was collected through a semi structured interview which was recorded (45minutes for each interview) and later transcribed for analysis. This study was designed as a unilingual mode of language production. The results show that less competent speakers either produced a great amount of ‘intruders’ into the language being used (English) and the lowest level of competence was marked by a shift of mode i.e. a complete change of code being used. None of the participants has been able to keep the unilingual/monolingual mode that they were required to operate in. What has been termed as ‘fluent’ codeswitching in natural language production designs is seen as a sign of incapability to keep the mode, therefore a sign of only middle level of language competence as far as the use of the known languages is concerned. Generally, in this study, we argue that codeswitching patterns among more competent speakers are built on single words or short phrases from a different language, middle language competence codeswitches were based on a navigation into different languages whereas lower competence was based on a complete shift of language (code) whereby the speakers changed the language they were supposed to use to a different language.

The main objective was to compare the physicochemical characteristics of meatballs produced from pork meat and wheat flour mixed with Amaranthus caudatus. Meatballs were produced with two different formulations: meatballs without Amaranthus caudatus and meatballs having Amaranthus caudatus. The different parameters, such as temperature, P H , fat content, weight loss, and titratable acidity, were compared from one formulation to another. The results showed that the p H value and fat content of those having A. caudatus, were lower than those found in meatballs without A.caudatus, but the temperature, weight loss, and titratable acidity were more than those found in meatballs without A.caudatus. By this, the P H value for the initial time was 6.1 compared to 6.3, the meatball fat content without A. caudatus of about 3.7% than the meatball fat content with A. caudatus of about 2.9%, and the different weight loss between those two meatballs was 19.47% (59g), and finally, the titratable acidity was 1.8% in meatballs with A. caudatus than 0.26% in those without A. caudatus. The meatballs with A.caudatus had a greater acidity and lower lipids than the meatballs without A.caudatus. Also, the acid concentration of both meatballs has significant for consumers and the loss of weight means that the lowering of water content is an indication of a good storage process.

From 1967 to 2012, Burundi had a formal system of education referred to, today, as old system. This system had initially three languages in education before Swahili was added in 2006. Since 2013, Burundi has a new educational system with four languages in education. This paper aimed to discuss the so called old education system of Burundi as far as languages in education are concerned. It explores issues related to the Burundian old multilingual educational system. Content materials designed by policy makers for languages of instruction and languages taught as subjects have provided substance for the discussion. Furthermore, documents including language education policy documents, content materials and the existing literature were consulted and analysed through content analysis methods. The way the languages were presented and introduced to learners through the content materials was discussed to understand underlying policy makers’ philosophy about how multilingual education should be carried out to achieve expected multilingual competence in the languages involved. It was realised that the system privileged separation of languages to avoid language transfer in order to achieve expected language competence. Crosslinguistic Transfer (interference) was considered to be a hindrance to language competence development and it was to be avoided both through the content materials and the teaching methods during classroom practices.