Purpose This review aims to summarize the current knowledge concerning the clinical features, diagnostic work-up and therapeutic approach of ocular toxoplasmosis focusing mainly on the postnatally acquired form of the disease. Methods A meticulous literature search was performed in the PubMed database. A supplementary search was made in Google Scholar to complete the collected items. Results Ocular toxoplasmosis is one of the most frequent infectious etiologies of posterior uveitis. It typically presents with retinochoroiditis. Setting an accurate diagnosis depends to a considerable degree on detecting characteristic clinical characteristics. In addition to the evaluation of clinical features, the diagnosis of toxoplasmosis relies at a large degree on serologic testing. The detection of the parasite DNA in the aqueous or vitreous humor can provide evidence for a definitive diagnosis. The current mainstay for the treatment, if necessary, is the use of oral antibiotic with systemic corticosteroids. Recent evidence suggests other therapeutic approaches, such as intravitreal antibiotics can be used. Conclusion Recent developments in the diagnostic and therapeutic approach have contributed to preventing or limiting vision loss of patients suffering from ocular toxoplasmosis. Further studies are required to provide a better understanding of epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment with a significant impact on the management of this challenging clinical entity.

Uveal melanoma is the most common intraocular malignancy in adults, representing approximately 3% of all melanoma cases. Despite progress in chemotherapy, radiation and surgical treatment options, the prognosis and survival rates remain poor. Acetylation of histone proteins causes transcription of genes involved in cell growth, DNA replication and progression of cell cycle. Overexpression of histone deacetylases occurs in a wide spectrum of malignancies. Histone deacetylase inhibitors block the action of histone deacetylases, leading to inhibition of tumor cell proliferation. This article reviewed the potential therapeutic effects of histone deacetylase inhibitors on uveal melanoma. MEDLINE database was used under the key words/phrases: histone deacetylase, inhibitors, uveal melanoma and targeted therapies for uveal melanoma. A total of 47, English articles, not only referring to uveal melanoma, published up to February 2018 were used. Valproic acid, trichostatin A, tenovin-6, depsipeptide, panobinostat (LBH-589), vorinostat (suberanilohydroxamic acid) entinostat (MS-275), quisinostat, NaB, JSL-1, MC1568 and MC1575 are histone deacetylase inhibitors that have demonstrated promising antitumor effects against uveal melanoma. Histone deacetylase inhibitors represent a promising therapeutic approach for the treatment of uveal melanoma.

Uveitic glaucoma consists one of the most serious complications of intraocular inflammation and, despite its rarity, is considered as one of the leading causes of preventable loss of vision worldwide. It has been associated with a wide spectrum of inflammatory diseases, but its pathogenesis is still not fully comprehended. It appears that the type of inflammation, the steroid-response and the anatomical alterations of the anterior chamber play a pivotal role. To our knowledge, the mechanisms may be both acute and chronic. The main targets of the treatment are to control the inflammation and reduce the intraocular pressure (IOP). The management of glaucoma associated with uveitis remains an extremely challenging condition for ophthalmologists. The successful treatment of uveitic glaucoma is inextricably correlated with prompt and immediate therapeutic decisions. Very often a solid collaboration between clinicians from different specialties may be required for treating the underlying disease.Further understanding of its pathogenesis can indicate therapeutic targets and may lead to the development of new and more efficient therapeutic approaches. New glaucoma surgical modalities may ameliorate the prognosis after surgical intervention, but this calls for further evaluation. This study aims to highlight the complexity of uveitic glaucoma analyzing the main pathogenetic mechanisms and the correlations with the inflammatory response.

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Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the leading cause of legal blindness in the United States. Considering the increasing incidence of DR, it is extremely important to detect the most cost-effective tools for DR screening, so as to manage this surge in demand and the socioeconomic burden it places on the health care system. Despite the advances in retinal imaging, analysis techniques are still superseded by expert ophthalmologist interpretation. Teleophthalmology presents an immense opportunity, with high rates of sensitivity and specificity, to manage the steadily increasing demand for eye care of patients with diabetes, but challenges remain in the delivery of practical, viable, and clinically proven solutions.

Ocular adnexal lymphomas are a group of heterogeneous neoplasms representing approximately 1-2% of non-Hodgkin lymphomas and 8% of extranodal lymphomas. The incidence of primary ocular adnexal lymphoid tumors has raised over the last decades, and this could be probably attributed to the more sophisticated diagnostic techniques. Due to the wide spectrum of clinical manifestations, ocular tissue biopsy is important in order to set a precise diagnosis based on histological, immunophenotypical and, in some cases, molecular findings. The most common subtype, which may account for up to 80% of primary ocular adnexal lymphomas, is extranodal marginal zone lymphoma (EMZL) of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue. This lymphoma is usually asymptomatic in the early phase of the disease causing a delay in the final diagnosis and prompt therapy. The pathogenesis of a proportion of these tumors has been linked to chronic inflammatory stimulation from specific infectious factors (e.g., Chlamydia psittaci) or to autoimmunity. The further improvement in diagnostic methods and the further understanding of the pathogenesis of ocular adnexal EMZL may contribute to the establishment of a more successful multidisciplinary therapeutic planning.

Primary vitreoretinal lymphoma (PVRL) is a rare ocular lymphoid malignancy, which consists a subset of primary central system lymphoma (PCNSL) and the most common type of intraocular lymphoma. The involvement of eyes is estimated to be approximately 20% of PCNSL, but the brain involvement may be up to 80% of PVRL. Typically, PVRL is a high grade B-cell malignancy of the retina and needs to be assorted from choroidal low-grade B-cell lymphomas. Very often PVRL masquerades and can be erroneously diagnosed as chronic uveitis, white dot syndromes or other neoplasms. Establishing an accurate diagnosis may involve cytology/pathology, immunohistochemistry, flow cytometry, molecular pathology and cytokine profile analysis. There is inadequate information about PVRL’s true incidence, ethnic/geographical variation and pathogenetic mechanisms. The therapeutic approach of PVRL involves aggressive chemotherapy and radiation therapy. Although PVRL tends to have a good response to the initial treatment, the prognosis is poor and the survival restricted due to the high relapse rates and CNS involvement.