Agitation is common in the medical and psychiatric emergency department, and appropriate management of agitation is a core competency for emergency clinicians. In this article, the authors review the use of a variety of first-generation antipsychotic drugs, second-generation antipsychotic drugs, and benzodiazepines for treatment of acute agitation, and propose specific guidelines for treatment of agitation associated with a variety of conditions, including acute intoxication, psychiatric illness, delirium, and multiple or idiopathic causes. Pharmacologic treatment of agitation should be based on an assessment of the most likely cause of the agitation. If agitation results from a delirium or other medical condition, clinicians should first attempt to treat the underlying cause instead of simply medicating with antipsychotics or benzodiazepines.

Standard-Nutzungsbedingungen:Die Dokumente auf EconStor dürfen zu eigenen wissenschaftlichen Zwecken und zum Privatgebrauch gespeichert und kopiert werden.Sie dürfen die Dokumente nicht für öffentliche oder kommerzielle Zwecke vervielfältigen, öffentlich ausstellen, öffentlich zugänglich machen, vertreiben oder anderweitig nutzen.Sofern die Verfasser die Dokumente unter Open-Content-Lizenzen (insbesondere CC-Lizenzen) zur Verfügung gestellt haben sollten, gelten abweichend von diesen Nutzungsbedingungen die in der dort genannten Lizenz gewährten Nutzungsrechte. The CASE Network is a group of economic and social research centers in Poland, Kyrgyzstan, Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, and Belarus. Organizations in the network regularly conduct joint research and advisory projects. The research covers a wide spectrum of economic and social issues, including economic effects of the European integration process, economic relations between the EU and CIS, monetary policy and euro-accession, innovation and competitiveness, and labour markets and social policy. The network aims to increase the range and quality of economic research and information available to policy-makers and civil society, and takes an active role in on-going debates on how to meet the economic challenges facing the EU, post-transition countries and the global economy. Terms of use: Documents inThe CASE network consists of: AcknowledgementsThis report is the result of a team effort and reflects the contributions of all those who have contributed to the country fiches, the country case studies as well as the interim and final reports, in particular:

A number of new optical effects that result from degenerate four-wave mixing in transparent optical media are proposed and analyzed. The applications are relevant to time-reversed (phase-conjugated) propagation as well as to a new mode of parametric oscillation.The purpose of this Letter is to examine briefly the consequences of a certain class of four-wave mixing.This mixing involves two intense pun-p waves E 1 and EB of the same frequency w traveling in opposite directions and two "weak" waves E 3 and E 4 of the same frequency w, which aiso travel in opposition to each other but along a direction different from that of E 1 and E 2 . The geometry is illustrated in Fig. 1.The fields are taken as plane waveswith ri the distance along ki. We thus have E1 + k 2 -0, k 3 + k 4 = 0.(1)A, (NONDEPLETED PUMP WAVE)z-IL Fig. 1. Four-wave mixing geometry (assuming nondepleting pump waves). We consider a medium with a nonlinear susceptibility x occupying the space 0 < z < L. We are interested in the spatial evolution of waves A 3 and A 4 when subject to the pumping by A 1 and A 2 .We apply the standard 2 -4 methods of nonlinear optics to solve the wave equationand, neglecting the depletion of A 1 and A 2 , obtain dz 3 = i-xAiA 2 A 4 * expl-i(k 1 + k 2 -k 3 -k4)-rtook the z direction as that of k 4 , and used the adiabaticThe complex coupling constant x is given by X* =-2wXA A 9._ 2 wIf we specify the complex amplitudes A:3(L) and A 4 (0) of the two weak waves at their respective input planesAn especially interesting case is that of a single input A 4 (0) at z = 0. In this case the reflected wave at the input (z = 0) is

It is proposed that the process of nonlinear optical phase conjugation can be utilized to compensate for channel dispersion and hence to correct for temporal pulse broadening. Specifically, a four-wave nonlinear interaction is shown to achieve pulse renarrowing. Spectral bandwidth phase-conjugate interaction parameters.Recent theoretically and experimental" 5 ' 7 -l 0 studies indicate that the generation of phase-conjugate replicas of incident optical waves has certain formal aspects of time reversal and that this property can be used to correct for spatial-propagation distortion. In addition, chirp compensation using four-wave mixing has been analyzed." In this Letter we explore theoretically what happens following conjugation to a short electromagnetic pulse that has traversed a dispersive channel. We find, reassuringly, that the group delay of the pulses is not time reversed, i.e., pulses retain their relative temporal order. The effect of group velocity dispersion, dvg/dw, however, is time reversed to first order. This implies that pulses broadened in propagation can be renarrowed following conjugation by merely propagating through a second channel. We remark here that the notion of equalization or estimation and chirp techniques as applied to phase compensation due to pulse propagation is a well-known concept in data communication systems and in radar applications.1 2 The application of nonlinear optical techniques with respect to this problem has not, to our knowledge, been analyzed and is the topic of this Letter.The model analyzed is shown in Fig. 1. An input pulse,is incident on a dispersive channel. wo is the optical carrier frequency; the pulse envelope is g(t). The Fourier transform of g(t) is F(Q)so thatSince the width of g(t) is very large compared with the optical period 2,r/wo, it follows that Q << wo over the region where F(Q) is appreciable. where fOo -(wo). The term (aol/do)Ll can be written as Ll/vg, where vg = wl/aO is the group velocity. The term a 2 l/dcW 2 , which can be written as [- (I/vg 2 ) (dOgi do)], is the group velocity dispersion term and causes f 2 (t) to be broader than fI(t) when f,(t) is a transform-limited pulse.The pulse f 2 (t) undergoes phase conjugation-the result being the pulse f 3 (t). To be specific, we will assume that the phase conjugation is achieved by fourwave mixing in a nondispersive medium with two (essentially cw) pump waves, Al and A 2 , at wo. We further assume that the response time of the nonlinear interaction is faster than the pulse duration. This causes a Fourier component at wo + Q to be reflected' 3 at a frequency wo -Q, so that the sum 2wo of the pump frequencies is equal to the sum of the incident and reflected frequencies. In general, an incident Fourier

Grouping students by 'ability' is a topic of long-standing contention in English education policy, research and practice. While policymakers have frequently advocated the practice as reflecting educational 'standards', research has consistently failed to find significant benefits of 'ability' grouping; and indeed has identified disadvantages for some (low attaining) pupil groups. However, this research evidence has apparently failed to impact practice in England. This article, contextualised by the authors' interests in education and social inequality, seeks to do two things. Firstly, it provides a brief analysis of the existing research evidence on the impact of 'ability' grouping, with particular reference to socioeconomic inequality; identifying seven different explanations for the poorer progress of pupils in low sets that emerge from the literature. Secondly, it applies Foucaultian 'analysis of discourse' to propose potential explanations for the apparent lack of traction of existing research with policy and practice, arguing that practices of 'ability grouping' reflect cultural investments in discourses of 'natural order' and hierarchy, with particular resonance for the discursive and political habitus of middle class parents.We postulate that investing in a powerful counter-discourse of enlightenment science, illustrated via our current randomised control trial of different approaches to pupil grouping, may offer a means to challenge hegemonic discourses that underpin current classroom practice.

The development of key competences for lifelong learning has been an important policy imperative for EU Member States. The European Reference Framework of key competences (2006) built on previous developments by the OECD, UNESCO and Member States themselves. It defined key competences as knowledge, skills and attitudes applied appropriately to contexts. Now most Member States have incorporated key competences, or similarly broad learning outcomes, into their school curriculum frameworks. This is a necessary but insufficient step towards implementation; for the effective development of learners' key competences, assessment must also change. This article focuses on the challenge of assessing cross‐curricular key competences in primary and secondary education. It is based on a major study for the European Commission (Gordon, et al., 2009), which drew on information gathered and validated with the help of experts in each of the 27 EU Member States. The study's typology of assessment provides a basis for reviewing some recent developments in Member States. Present challenges and innovative responses are addressed, including ‘unpacking’ key competences, ‘mapping’ them to contexts and ‘accessment’ of their full scope and range. Policy developments are considered in the context of the author's work with the European Commission's Thematic Working Group on the assessment of key competences. The article concludes with considerations for policy and practice.

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Within-school segregation of pupils by attainment remains prevalent, despite evidence that these practices detrimentally impact outcomes for those in low attainment groups. This article explores the hypothesis that 'ability grouping' by setting impacts pupil self-confidence, precipitating a selffulfilling prophecy. Survey data from 11,546 11/12 year old pupils in 'ability sets', and individual interviews and focus groups with 66 pupils, are drawn upon to explore this hypothesis. We find a significant correlation between perceived set placement and self-confidence in the set subject. More importantly, we also find a correlation between set placement and general self-confidence in learning. Pupils' qualitative responses illustrate how setting can promote self-fulfilling prophecy, and worrying evidence of internalisation of 'ability' labels among pupils.