Previous research based on theoretical simulations has shown the potential of the wavelet transform to detect damage in a beam by analysing the time-deflection response due to a constant moving load. However, its application to identify damage from the response of a bridge to a vehicle raises a number of questions. Firstly, it may be difficult to record the difference in the deflection signal between a healthy and a slightly damaged structure to the required level of accuracy and high scanning frequencies in the field. Secondly, the bridge is going to have a road profile and it will be loaded by a sprung vehicle and time-varying forces rather than a constant load. Therefore, an algorithm based on a plot of wavelet coefficients versus time to detect damage (a singularity in the plot) appears to be very sensitive to noise. This paper addresses these questions by: (a) using the acceleration signal, instead of the deflection signal, (b) employing a vehiclebridge finite element interaction model, and (c) developing a novel wavelet-based approach using wavelet energy content at each bridge section which proves to be more sensitive to damage than a wavelet coefficient line plot at a given scale as employed by others.

Publication informationJournal of Sound and Vibration, 332 (25): 6685-6702Publisher Elsevier Item record/more information http://hdl.handle.net/10197/6581 Publisher's statementThis is the author's version of a work that was accepted for publication in Journal of Sound and Vibration. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as peer review, editing, corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechanisms may not be reflected in this document. Changes may have been made to this work since it was submitted for publication. A definitive version was subsequently published in Journal of Sound and Vibration (VOL 332, ISSUE 25, (2013) AbstractScour around bridge foundations is one of the leading causes of bridge failure. Up until recently, the monitoring of this phenomenon was primarily based around using underwater instrumentation to monitor the progression of scour holes as they develop around foundation systems. Vibration-based damage detection techniques have been used to detect damage in bridge beams. The application of these vibration based methods to the detection of scour has come to the fore in research in recent years. This paper examines the effect that scour has on the frequency response of a driven pile foundation system, similar to those used to support road and rail bridges. The effect of scour on the vibration characteristics of the pile is examined using laboratory and field testing. It is clear that there is a very clear reduction in the natural frequency of the pile as the severity of scour increases. It is shown that by combining state-of-the-art geotechnical techniques with relatively simple finite element modelling approaches, it is possible to accurately predict the natural frequency of the pile for a given scour depth. Therefore, the paper proposes a method that would allow the estimation of scour depth for a given observed pile frequency. Scour Monitoring: The accurate assessment and monitoring of existing structures to progressive scour has come to the fore of research in recent years [7,8]. A myriad of current technology aims to detect the existence and severity of scour around the foundation systems of existing bridge structures. Most of these technologies comprise underwater instrumentation that aim to monitor the evolution of scour holes over time. A brief summary of available instrumentation is given herein. The use of float-out devices [9] and Tethered Buried Switches [10] positioned in the soil near a bridge pier can provide a simple method of scour monitoring. These devices float out when the scour depth reaches their position and are programmed to send a remote signal to provide a warning. However, they require reinstallation upon floating out, which is a distinct disadvantage. Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) aims to detect changes in the dielectric permittivity constants between materials that would occur at a water-sediment interface and thus has been used to detect scour [10 -12]. Devices using this method work very well at detecting the depth of scour i...

Bridge scour is the number one cause of failure in bridges located over waterways. Scour leads to rapid losses in foundation stiffness and can cause sudden collapse. Previous research on bridge health monitoring has used changes in natural frequency to identify damage in bridge beams. The possibility of using a similar approach to identify scour is investigated in this paper. To assess if this approach is feasible, it is necessary to establish how scour affects the natural frequency of a bridge and is it possible to measure changes in frequency using the bridge dynamic response to a passing vehicle. To address these questions, a novel Vehicle-Bridge-Soil Interaction (VBSI) model is developed. By carrying out a modal study in this model, it is shown that for a wide range of possible soil states, there is a clear reduction in the natural frequency of the first mode of the bridge with scour. Moreover, it is shown that the response signals on the bridge from vehicular loading are sufficient to allow these changes in frequency to be detected.

This paper describes development of a contactless, low cost vision-based system for displacement measurement of civil structures. Displacement measurements provide a valuable insight into the structural condition and service behaviour of bridges under live loading. Conventional displacement gauges or GPS based systems have limitations in terms of access to the infrastructure and accuracy. The system introduced in this paper provides a low cost durable alternative which is rapidly deployable in the field and does not require direct contact or access to the infrastructure or its vicinity. A commercial action camera was modified to facilitate the use of a telescopic lens and paired with the development of robust displacement identification algorithms based on pattern matching. Performance was evaluated first in a series of controlled laboratory tests and validated against displacement measurements obtained using a fibre optic displacement gauge. The efficiency of the system for field applications was then demonstrated by capturing the validated bridge response of two structures under live loading including the iconic peace bridge. Located in the City of Derry, Northern Ireland, the Peace Bridge is a 310m curved self-anchored suspension pedestrian bridge structure. The vision-based results of the field experiment were confirmed against displacements calculated from measured accelerations during a dynamic assessment of the structure under crowd loading. In field applications the developed system can achieve a root mean square error (RMSE) of 0.03mm against verified measurements.

Optics-based tracking of civil structures is not new, due to historical application in surveying, but automated applications capable of tracking at rates that capture dynamic effects are now a hot research topic in structural health monitoring. Recent innovations show promise of true non-contacting monitoring capability avoiding the need for physically attached sensor arrays. The paper reviews recent experience using the Imetrum Dynamic Monitoring Station (DMS) commercial optics-based tracking system on Humber Bridge and Tamar Bridge, aiming to show both the potential and limitations. In particular, the paper focuses on the challenges to field application of such a system resulting from camera instability, nature of the target (artificial or structural feature), and illumination. The paper ends with evaluation of a non-proprietary system using a consumer-grade camera for cable vibration monitoring to emphasize the potential for lower cost systems where if performance specifications can be relaxed.

Publication information Journal of Sound and Vibration, 332 (13): 3201-3217Publisher Elsevier Item record/more information http://hdl.handle.net/10197/6212 Publisher's statementThis is the author's version of a work that was accepted for publication in Journal of Sound and Vibration. Changes resulting from the publishing process, such as peer review, editing, corrections, structural formatting, and other quality control mechanisms may not be reflected in this document. Changes may have been made to this work since it was submitted for publication. A definitive version was subsequently published in Journal of Sound and Vibration (VOL 332, ISSUE 13, (2013) that did not appear in the healthy structure is present in the response of the damaged structure. This paper elucidates from first principles how the acceleration response can be assumed to consist of 'static' and 'dynamic' components, and where the beam has experienced a localised loss in stiffness, an additional 'damage' component. The combination of these components establishes how the damage singularity will appear in the total response.For a given damage severity, the amplitude of the 'damage' component will depend on how close the damage location is to the sensor, and its frequency content will increase with higher velocities of the moving force. The latter has implications for damage detection because if the frequency content of the 'damage' component includes bridge and/or vehicle frequencies, it becomes more difficult to identify damage. The paper illustrates how a thorough understanding of the relationship between the 'static' and 'damage' components contributes *Manuscript Click here to download Manuscript: Manuscript RevC.doc Click here to view linked References 2 to establish if damage has occurred and to provide an estimation of its location and severity.The findings are corroborated using accelerations from a planar finite element simulation model where the effects of force velocity and bridge span are examined.

A major weakness among loading models for pedestrians walking on flexible structures proposed in recent years is the various uncorroborated assumptions made in their development. This applies to spatio-temporal characteristics of pedestrian loading and the nature of multi-object interactions. To alleviate this problem, a framework for the determination of localised pedestrian forces on full-scale structures is presented using a wireless attitude and heading reference systems (AHRS). An AHRS comprises a triad of tri-axial accelerometers, gyroscopes and magnetometers managed by a dedicated data processing unit, allowing motion in three-dimensional space to be reconstructed. A pedestrian loading model based on a single point inertial measurement from an AHRS is derived and shown to perform well against benchmark data collected on an instrumented treadmill. Unlike other models, the current model does not take any predefined form nor does it require any extrapolations as to the timing and amplitude of pedestrian loading. In order to assess correctly the influence of the moving pedestrian on behaviour of a structure, an algorithm for tracking the point of application of pedestrian force is developed based on data from a single AHRS attached to a foot. A set of controlled walking tests with a single pedestrian is conducted on a real footbridge for validation purposes. A remarkably good match between the measured and simulated bridge response is found, indeed confirming applicability of the proposed framework

Detecting scour by analysing bridge vibrations is receiving an increasing amount of attention in the literature. Others have considered changes in natural frequency to indicate the presence of scour damage; however, little work has been reported on identifying the location of a scour hole based on vibration measurements. In this paper, a numerical study is carried out using a bespoke vehiclebridge-soil dynamic interaction model to examine how the first six vibration modes (Eigen frequencies) of a typical integral bridge are affected by scour at different locations. It is found that depending on the location of the scour hole, some modes are much more affected than others in terms of frequency changes. In fact, a clear pattern emerges as to which modes are affected by which scour location. Using this knowledge, the location of a scour hole can potentially be detected on a real bridge. However, recognising that it is not possible to undertake an eigenvalue analysis on an actual bridge, an analysis is performed by collecting acceleration signals from various points on the structure. The bridge is loaded by a realistic vehicle model, incorporating vehicle-bridge interaction effects, which leads to the generation of discrete acceleration signals at various 'sensor' locations on the bridge. In this paper, it is found that it is possible to detect the location of a scour hole using a relatively small number of 'sensors'. However, to achieve this, careful signal processing is necessary and advice on a number of pertinent issues is provided.