Dynamic light conditions require continuous adjustments of stomatal aperture. The kinetics of stomatal conductance (gs) are hypothesized to be key to plant productivity and water use efficiency. Using step-changes in light intensity, we studied the diversity of light-induced gs kinetics in relation to stomatal anatomy in five banana genotypes (Musa spp.) and modelled the impact of both diffusional and biochemical limitations on photosynthesis (A). The dominant photosynthesis limiting factor was the diffusional limitation associated with gs kinetics. All genotypes exhibited a strong limitation of A by gs, indicating a priority for water saving. Moreover, significant genotypic differences in gs kinetics and gslimitations of A were observed. For two contrasting genotypes the impact of differential gs kinetics was further investigated under realistic diurnally fluctuating light conditions and at whole-plant level. Genotype-specific stomatal kinetics observed at the leaf level were corroborated at whole-plant level by transpiration dynamics, validating that genotype-specific responses are still maintained despite differences in gs control at different locations in the leaf and across leaves. However, under diurnally fluctuating light conditions the impact of gs speediness on A and intrinsic water use efficiency (iWUE) depended on time of day. During the afternoon there was a setback in kinetics: absolute gs and gs responses to light were damped, strongly limiting A and impacting diurnal iWUE. We conclude the impact of differential gs kinetics depended on target light intensity, magnitude of change, gs prior to the change in light intensity and particularly time of day.

Water deficit is one of the world’s major constraints in agriculture and will aggravate in the future. Banana ( Musa spp.) is an important crop that needs vast amounts of water for optimal production. The International Transit Center of Bioversity International holds the world’s biggest collection of banana biodiversity (>1,500 accessions). The long-term aim of this research is to evaluate the potential within this collection for climate smart agricultural usage. Therefore, we developed a phenotyping setup under controlled environmental conditions and we selected 32 representatives of the Musa biodiversity (29 cultivars and 3 wild relatives) for evaluation. The best performing genotypes accumulated six to seven times more biomass than the least performing. Eight genotypes (five ABB, one AAB, and two AAA) invest under osmotic stress significantly more in root growth than in leaf growth. We predict therefore that these genotypes have potential for high productivity under rain fed conditions with a short dry season. To gain more insight in the transpiration physiology, we gravimetrically monitored individual plant transpiration over the diurnal period. All analyzed genotypes showed a marked reduction in transpiration rate in the afternoon. Moreover, the timing of this onset, as well as its impact on total transpiration, was genotype dependent. This phenomenon was more pronounced in 13 genotypes (eight ABB, two AAB, two AA, one BB). Banana is a crop originating from the humid tropics and has developed a strong root pressure to maintain an efficient water and nutrient transport even under saturated relative humidity conditions. Therefore, we hypothesize that the diurnal transpiration decline contributes to a higher water use efficiency without compromising the nutrient transport. Of the eight genotypes that had the best growth under osmotic stress, all analyzed ABB cultivars have a lower maximal transpiration rate, keep this maximal transpiration for a shorter time and therefore consume less water per day. We conclude that lab models are very useful to study the biodiversity and to identify different traits that contribute to a better drought tolerance/avoidance. We encourage researchers investigating other crops to start exploring their collections.

Since natural habitats are disappearing fast, there is an urgent need to collect, characterize, and phenotype banana (Musa spp.) crop wild relatives to identify unique genotypes with specific traits that fill the gaps in our gene banks. We report on a collection mission in Papua New Guinea carried out in 2019. Seed containing bunches were collected from Musa peekelii ssp. angustigemma (N.W.Simmonds) Argent (3), M. schizocarpa N. W. Simmonds (4), M. balbisiana Colla (3), M. acuminata ssp. banksii (F. Muell.) Simmonds (14), M. boman Argent (3), M. ingens Simmonds (2), M. maclayi ssp. maclayi F.Muell. ex Mikl.-Maclay (1), and M. lolodensis Cheesman (1). This material, together with the seeds collected during a previous mission in 2017, form the basis for the development of a wild banana seed bank. For characterization and phenotyping, we focused on the most ubiquitous indigenous species of Papua New Guinea: M. acuminata ssp. banksii, the ancestor of most edible bananas. We calculated that the median genomic dissimilarity of the M. acuminata ssp. banksii accessions was 4% and that they differed at least 5% from accessions present in the International Transit Centre, the world's largest banana gene bank. High-throughput phenotyping revealed drought avoidance strategies with significant differences

Plant and plant organ movements are the result of a complex integration of endogenous growth and developmental responses, partially controlled by the circadian clock, and external environmental cues. Monitoring of plant motion is typically done by image-based phenotyping techniques with the aid of computer vision algorithms. Here we present a method to measure leaf movements using a digital inertial measurement unit (IMU) sensor. The lightweight sensor is easily attachable to a leaf or plant organ and records angular traits in real-time for two dimensions (pitch and roll) with high resolution (measured sensor oscillations of 0.36° ± 0.53° for pitch and 0.50° ± 0.65° for roll). We were able to record simple movements such as petiole bending, as well as complex lamina motions, in several crops, ranging from tomato to banana. We also assessed growth responses in terms of lettuce rosette expansion and maize seedling stem movements. The IMU sensors are capable of detecting small changes of nutations (i.e., bending movements) in leaves of different ages and in different plant species. In addition, the sensor system can also monitor stress-induced leaf movements. We observed that unfavorable environmental conditions evoke certain leaf movements, such as drastic epinastic responses, as well as subtle fading of the amplitude of nutations. In summary, the presented digital sensor system enables continuous detection of a variety of leaf motions with high precision, and is a low-cost tool in the field of plant phenotyping, with potential applications in early stress detection.

Crop wild relatives, the closely related species of crops, may harbour potentially important sources of new allelic diversity for (a)biotic tolerance or resistance. However, to date, wild diversity is only poorly characterized and evaluated. Banana has a large wild diversity but only a narrow proportion is currently used in breeding programmes. The main objective of this study was to evaluate genotype‐dependent transpiration responses in relation to the environment. By applying continuous high‐throughput phenotyping, we were able to construct genotype‐specific transpiration response models in relation to light, VPD and soil water potential. We characterized and evaluated six (sub)species and discerned four phenotypic clusters. Significant differences were observed in leaf area, cumulative transpiration and transpiration efficiency. We confirmed a general stomatal‐driven ‘isohydric’ drought avoidance behaviour, but discovered genotypic differences in the onset and intensity of stomatal closure. We pinpointed crucial genotype‐specific soil water potentials when drought avoidance mechanisms were initiated and when stress kicked in. Differences between (sub)species were dependent on environmental conditions, illustrating the need for high‐throughput dynamic phenotyping, modelling and validation. We conclude that the banana wild relatives contain useful drought tolerance traits, emphasising the importance of their conservation and potential for use in breeding programmes.

Crop wild relatives, the closely related species of crops, may harbor potentially important sources of new allelic diversity for (a)biotic tolerance or resistance. However, to date wild diversity is only poorly characterized and evaluated. Banana has a large wild diversity but only a narrow proportion is currently used in breeding programs. The main objective of this work was to evaluate genotype-dependent transpiration responses in relation to the environment. By applying continuous high-throughput phenotyping, we were able to construct genotype-specific transpiration response models in relation to light, VPD and soil water potential. We characterized and evaluated 6 (sub)species and discerned four phenotypic clusters. Significant differences were observed in leaf area, cumulative transpiration and transpiration efficiency. We confirmed a general stomatal-driven ‘isohydric’ drought avoidance behavior, but discovered genotypic differences in the onset and intensity of stomatal closure. We pinpointed crucial genotype specific environmental conditions when drought avoidance mechanisms were initiated and when stress kicked in. Differences between (sub)species were more pronounced under certain environmental conditions, illustrating the need for high-throughput dynamic phenotyping, modelling and validation. We conclude that the banana wild relatives contain useful drought tolerance traits, emphasizing the importance of their conservation and potential for use in breeding programs.

Dynamic light conditions require continuous adjustments of stomatal aperture. As stomatal conductance (gs) kinetics are a magnitude slower than photosynthesis (A), they are hypothesized to be key to plant productivity and water use efficiency. Using step-changes in light intensity, we studied the diversity of light-induced gs kinetics in relation to stomatal anatomy in five banana genotypes (Musa spp.) and modelled the impact on A and intrinsic water use efficiency (iWUE). Banana generally exhibited a strong limitation of A by gs, indicating a priority for water saving. Significant genotypic differences in gs kinetics and gs-based limitations of A were observed. For two contrasting genotypes the impact of differential gs kinetics on A and iWUE was further investigated under realistic diurnally fluctuating light conditions and at whole-plant level. Genotype-specific stomatal kinetics observed at the leaf level were corroborated at whole-plant level, suggesting that despite differences in gs control at different locations in the leaf and across leaves, genotype-specific responses are still maintained. However, under diurnally fluctuating light conditions gs speediness had only a momentary impact on the diurnal iWUE and carbon gain. During the afternoon there was a setback in kinetics: the absolute gs and the gs responses to light were damped, strongly limiting A and the diurnal iWUE. We conclude that the impact of the differential gs kinetics on the limitation of A was dependent on the target light intensity, the magnitude of change, the gs prior to the intensity change and particularly the time of the day.

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