In 2001 the Environment Agency and Thames Water completed a collaborative research project “The Effectiveness of Marketing Campaigns in Achieving Water Efficiency Savings”. The project attempted to assess the effectiveness of a water efficiency campaign in a residential area of 8000 properties. The results showed that the campaign had no significant effect on water demand both at the individual property level and the total flow into the area. Responses to direct questions about the campaign indicated that at most 5% had noticed it despite the fact that 25% claimed to read the local newspaper and listen to the local radio station used for the campaign, and the fact that a leaflet was sent to all households. The market research provided some clues as to why the customer response to this campaign was so disappointing, principally because the public regard water as low priority compared to other environmental issues. Other research is reviewed that provide additional reasons for the unwillingness of the public to engage on this issue. This paper reviews “success stories” from Phoenix, Arizona and Singapore and identifies the main learning points from these programs. Article 14 of the Water Framework Directive calls for active involvement in water policy. An assessment is made of what this might mean for public participation in water conservation programs.

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Results of an analysis of the distribution and movement of extratropical cyclones around Antarctica for the period September, 1973, through May, 1975 in seasonal cyclone frequencies, their preferred longitudinal positions, and the spatial and temporal fluctuations in latitude and pressure are shown, and these indicate good agreement with the known features of Southern Hemisphere climatology. The greatest numbers of cyclones occur during spring and fall, and their most common locations are near coastal embayments. A semiannual oscillation is present in the frequencies, mean latitudes, and mean pressures of the cyclones, although to varying degrees. Longitudinal variations in the intensity of the oscillation are also evident. The belt of maximum cyclone activity exhibits a distinct half-yearly cycle in latitudinal position, although the trough is located some 5" north of the position determined from mean monthly pressures. Harmonic analysis of the spatial variation of this belt and the simultaneous position of the sea-ice margin derived from microwave imagery suggests that there is little correlation between sea ice and cyclone tracks on a hemispheric scale. Close relationships are apparent for short time periods or in specific regions but will require more intensive study before causal mechanisms can be suggested. The asymmetry of the continent, rather than the extent of sea ice, is probably the principal factor involved in determining the longitudinal variations in the positions and tracks of cyclones around Antarctica on a hemispheric scale.

JOHN N. RAYNER and DAVID A. HOWARTH rT HE areal extent and variability of sea ice is one of the most important of the numerous components that interact to produce global climatic patterns, even for areas far removed from the polar zones. Sea ice in the south-polar region exhibits significant seasonal and interannual variations that from a practical viewpoint are important for Antarctic coastal navigation and fishery operations. The impact of these variations on global climate can have other far-reaching consequences. The presence of an ice cover effectively halts the exchanges of energy and mass between ocean and atmosphere and, therefore, must influence the behavior of the atmosphere. The sea ice becomes, as far as interface processes are concerned, an extension of the Antarctic continental ice sheet. During the time of minimum ice extent (usually March), ice occupies approximately 6 percent of the total hemispheric area; at the time of maximum extension (usually September), ice covers nearly 33 million square kilometers, or almost 13 percent of total hemispheric area. Fluctuations of this magnitude must profoundly influence the global energy balance and associated circulation patterns. Any global or hemispheric climate model should therefore contain sea-ice cover as a variable. Until recently, reliable estimates of the extent and the variability of Antarctic sea ice were difficult to obtain. Early maps depicted ice boundaries based on data that were poorly distributed in both space and time. Accordingly, these maps exhibit significant differences. With the deployment of earth-monitoring satellites in the early I960's, observation improved markedly. Nevertheless, the chosen orbital paths and a reliance on visible and near-infrared imaging did not allow continuous or complete coverage. Development of the Electrically Scanning Microwave Radiometer (ESMR) and its placement on the polar-orbiting Nimbus V satellite in December, 1972, provided scientists with complete coverage of ice extent on a daily basis, regardless of cloud cover or light conditions. This valuable tool provides an accurate means of monitoring short-period, seasonal, and interannual fluctuations of the Antarctic sea ice. This study examines the temporal and spatial variations of the ice boundary and calculates the statistics that describe the boundary and its variations. These analyses will form the basis for future comparisons. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Philosophers of ancient Greece believed that a vast landmass, heavily populated and possessing abundant natural resources, must be located south of the equator so as to balance the known landmass to the north. Concurrently, the Greek theory of an earth divided into three climatic zones, torrid, temperate, and frigid, postulated that the equatorial zone was impassable because of extreme heat. Exploration of the large southern continent was subsequently discouraged for hundreds of years.' *The research for this paper was conducted under NASA contract No.

ridded data from a numerical prognosis-analysis procedure developed by the Australian Numerical Meteorological Research Center are used to calculate five-year mean and seasonal field, of the vertically integrated water vapor flux divergence over the Southern Hemisphere for September 1973 through August 1978. Required data (mixing ratios and orthogonal wind components) are available at the 1000. 850. 700, and 500 mb pressure levels in the form of 47 X 47 matrices superimposed over a polar stereographic projection. Principal objective5 include examining the spatial patterns of the flux divergence field. assessing the seasonal variability, and identifying moisture sources and sink\. The hemisphere as a whole exhibits weak divergence (evaporation exceeds precipitation) with the subtropical oceans acting as the principal moisture source. Zonally averaged estimate5 of the difference between evaporation and precipitation are comparable in sign but smaller in magnitude than previous estimates. Significant seasonal variations in the water balance are implied in the latitude band between 32" and 48's. Maps of the water vapor flux divergence fields are in fair agreement with previous works. hut there are some discrepancies. The known distribution of evaporation and precipitation over the hemisphere is generally supportive of results presented here. Water vapor flux convergence is niure extensive over the hemisphere during winter. but the largest absolute magnitudes at specific locations occur during summer. In the subtropics the zonally averaged flux divergence i\ greatest during &inter and spring, reflecting the increased demand for water i n both the equatorial and higher latitudes at thesc times. These results provide useful information about the atmospheric component of the hydrologic cycle in the Southern Hemisphere.