Despite its critical role for the development of the field, little is known about replication in second language (L2) research. To better understand replication practice, we first provide a narrative review of challenges related to replication, drawing on recent developments in psychology. This discussion frames and motivates a systematic review, building on syntheses of replication in psychology, education, and L2 research. We coded 67 self-labeled L2 replication studies found across 26 journals for 136 characteristics. We estimated a mean rate of 1 published replication study for every 400 articles, with a mean of 6.64 years between initial and replication studies and a mean of 117 citations of the initial study before a replication was published. Replication studies had an annual mean of 7.3 citations, much higher than averages in linguistics and education. Overlap in authorship between initial and replication studies and the availability of the initial materials both increased the likelihood of a replication supporting the initial findings. Our sample contained no direct (exact) replication attempts, and changes made to initial studies were numerous and wide ranging, which likely obscured, if not undermined, the interpretability of replication studies. To improve the amount and quality of L2 replication research, we propose 16 recommendations relating to rationale, nomenclature, design, infrastructure, and incentivization for collaboration and publication.

The affective dimensions of emotional valence and emotional arousal affect processing of verbal and pictorial stimuli. Traditional emotional theories assume a linear relationship between these dimensions, with valence determining the direction of a behavior (approach vs. withdrawal) and arousal its intensity or strength. In contrast, according to the valence-arousal conflict theory, both dimensions are interactively related: positive valence and low arousal (PL) are associated with an implicit tendency to approach a stimulus, whereas negative valence and high arousal (NH) are associated with withdrawal. Hence, positive, high-arousal (PH) and negative, low-arousal (NL) stimuli elicit conflicting action tendencies. By extending previous research that used several tasks and methods, the present study investigated whether and how emotional valence and arousal affect subjective approach vs. withdrawal tendencies toward emotional words during two novel tasks. In Study 1, participants had to decide whether they would approach or withdraw from concepts expressed by written words. In Studies 2 and 3 participants had to respond to each word by pressing one of two keys labeled with an arrow pointing upward or downward. Across experiments, positive and negative words, high or low in arousal, were presented. In Study 1 (explicit task), in line with the valence-arousal conflict theory, PH and NL words were responded to more slowly than PL and NH words. In addition, participants decided to approach positive words more often than negative words. In Studies 2 and 3, participants responded faster to positive than negative words, irrespective of their level of arousal. Furthermore, positive words were significantly more often associated with “up” responses than negative words, thus supporting the existence of implicit associations between stimulus valence and response coding (positive is up and negative is down). Hence, in contexts in which participants' spontaneous responses are based on implicit associations between stimulus valence and response, there is no influence of arousal. In line with the valence-arousal conflict theory, arousal seems to affect participants' approach-withdrawal tendencies only when such tendencies are made explicit by the task, and a minimal degree of processing depth is required.

In this exploratory study, we considered the method of combining eventrelated potentials (ERPs) and source attributions as a means for examining the explicit or implicit nature of second language (L2) knowledge and processing. We recorded electroencephalograms while L2 Spanish participants judged phrase structure and subject-verb agreement sentences and provided source attributions-guess, intuition, memory, rule. The participants evidenced above chance performance and anterior P600 effects to the stimuli overall. We examined whether ERPs differed by explicit (memory, rule) or implicit (guess, intuition) source attributions. Mixed-effects models indicated more positive ERPs when the participants indicated explicit source attributions. Thus, the anterior P600 evidenced in our study seemed to reflect subjectively reported explicit knowledge. Future research will be necessary to reproduce this finding, to understand ERP effects that may be associated with implicit knowledge, and to further explore how ERPs may be triangulated with other types of data to better understand the nature of L2.Versions of this study were presented at the 2018 Cognitive Neuroscience of Second and Artificial Language Learning conference and at the 2019 annual meeting of the Cognitive Neuroscience Society. We thank attendees for their helpful comments on the work. We also thank our participants and the undergraduate research assistants who were invaluable for conducting this study, especially

No abstract

Single-route models of morphosyntax posit that inflected word processing involves associative memory-based storage, whereas dual-route models propose rule-governed composition as an alternative to storage-based mechanisms. We test these accounts via their divergent predictions on whether word frequency affects processing of regular morphosyntactic inflections (as in the single-route model) or not (dual-route model). To date, the only study to test this using electroencephalography (EEG) comes from Allen, Badecker, and Osterhout (2003), who report no interaction between word grammaticality and word frequency. We conceptually replicate and extend Allen et al. (2003) with generalized additive mixed modeling, which retains per-trial and per-time sample information to avoid loss of statistical power from event-related potential-style averaging of trials while avoiding the assumption that the time course of word processing is identical across all words and individuals. In our EEG study, 51 English native speakers read sentences that either did or did not contain a determiner-noun agreement violation (e.g., this school/*schools) or a subject-verb agreement violation (e.g., the child runs/*run) based on a manipulation of a critical word. We follow the generalized additive mixed modeling procedure from prior research, with word frequency in the British National Corpus as a continuous predictor. We replicated Allen et al.’s (2003) reported main effects of frequency and grammaticality. Critically, we found no significant interaction between frequency and grammaticality. These results support Allen et al. (2003) in aligning with the dual-route model's account of composition-like mechanisms in inflected word processing.