Approach and Withdrawal Tendencies during Written Word Processing: Effects of Task, Emotional Valence, and Emotional Arousal

Abstract

The affective dimensions of emotional valence and emotional arousal affect processing of verbal and pictorial stimuli. Traditional emotional theories assume a linear relationship between these dimensions, with valence determining the direction of a behavior (approach vs. withdrawal) and arousal its intensity or strength. In contrast, according to the valence-arousal conflict theory, both dimensions are interactively related: positive valence and low arousal (PL) are associated with an implicit tendency to approach a stimulus, whereas negative valence and high arousal (NH) are associated with withdrawal. Hence, positive, high-arousal (PH) and negative, low-arousal (NL) stimuli elicit conflicting action tendencies. By extending previous research that used several tasks and methods, the present study investigated whether and how emotional valence and arousal affect subjective approach vs. withdrawal tendencies toward emotional words during two novel tasks. In Study 1, participants had to decide whether they would approach or withdraw from concepts expressed by written words. In Studies 2 and 3 participants had to respond to each word by pressing one of two keys labeled with an arrow pointing upward or downward. Across experiments, positive and negative words, high or low in arousal, were presented. In Study 1 (explicit task), in line with the valence-arousal conflict theory, PH and NL words were responded to more slowly than PL and NH words. In addition, participants decided to approach positive words more often than negative words. In Studies 2 and 3, participants responded faster to positive than negative words, irrespective of their level of arousal. Furthermore, positive words were significantly more often associated with “up” responses than negative words, thus supporting the existence of implicit associations between stimulus valence and response coding (positive is up and negative is down). Hence, in contexts in which participants' spontaneous responses are based on implicit associations between stimulus valence and response, there is no influence of arousal. In line with the valence-arousal conflict theory, arousal seems to affect participants' approach-withdrawal tendencies only when such tendencies are made explicit by the task, and a minimal degree of processing depth is required.

Gamma Oscillations in the Temporal Pole Reflect the Contribution of Approach and Avoidance Motivational Systems to the Processing of Fear and Anger Words

“…To this aim, we compared FFA and brain oscillations elicited by words denoting concepts associated with approach responses (i.e., anger words) with those evoked by words with conceptual referents related to conflicting action tendencies such as escape, fight of freeze (i.e., fear words). In line with prior reports, our data suggest a contribution of motivational systems to the processing of emotion words ( Citron et al, 2014 , 2016 ; Wang et al, 2018 ). As expected, participants gave distancing responses in the “approaching-distancing” task to both fear and anger negative words, whereas approaching responses were mainly restricted to positive words.…”

“…In this sense, the valence-arousal conflict theory ( Robinson et al, 2004 ) predicts that positive valence and low arousal are associated with approach-related action tendencies, while negative valence and high arousal are linked to avoidance behaviors. In line with this proposal, prior studies have shown that motivationally incongruent words (e.g., positive high arousing and negative low arousing words) are responded to more slowly than motivationally congruent ones (positive low arousing and negative high arousing words), although these effects were restricted to tasks that explicitly demanded approach-avoidance judgments from participants ( Citron et al, 2014 , 2016 ; Wang et al, 2018 ). Of note, in these studies the contribution of motivational directions to the processing of emotional words is subsidiary of the two affective dimensions of valence and arousal.…”

“…To sum up, it has been widely established that the affective dimensions of valence and arousal influence the processing of emotion words (e.g., Kissler et al, 2007 ; Herbert et al, 2008 ; Méndez-Bértolo et al, 2011 ; Hinojosa et al, 2014 ). In contrast, with few exceptions, evidence regarding the contribution of approach and avoidance motivational systems to word processing is rather scarce (e.g., Citron et al, 2014 , 2016 ; Huete-Pérez et al, 2019 ). Here we report a different pattern of brain activation for fear and anger words that were matched in arousal and valence, but were related to different motivational directions.…”

Bodily Reactions to Emotional Words Referring to Own versus Other People’s Emotions

“…Regarding the processing of single words, rapid serial presentation of words with emotional content, in several studies, facilitated both initial stimulus processing in the visual cortex and subsequent recall performance of emotional words (e.g., Kissler et al, 2007 ; Herbert et al, 2008 ). Moreover, in several studies, reading emotional words activated emotional brain structures such as the amygdala ( Hamann, 2001 ; Tabert et al, 2001 ; Kuchinke et al, 2005 ; Hazlett et al, 2007 ; Herbert et al, 2009 ) and induced changes in affective behavior including priming of approach and avoidance including defensive responses like the startle-reflex (e.g., Herbert et al, 2006 ; Herbert and Kissler, 2010 ; Citron et al, 2016 ). Presentation of emotional words also influences the perception and appraisal of non-verbal emotional signals: on a behavioral (e.g., Lindquist et al, 2006 ) as well as on a neural or physiological level ( Lieberman et al, 2007 ; Moseley et al, 2012 ; Herbert et al, 2013a , c ), having implications for the treatment of clinical and neurological disorders ( Roberson et al, 2007 ; Kircanski et al, 2012 ).…”

Emotionality effects in ambiguous word recognition: The crucial role of the affective congruence between distinct meanings of ambiguous words

“…Indeed, positive emotions are generally correlated with approach tendencies, whereas negative emotions are linked to withdrawal/avoidance tendencies (e.g., Roseman, 2008). Although such action tendencies have been scarcely investigated when the emotional stimuli are words, a few studies suggest that they may have also a role in word processing (e.g., Citron et al, 2016;Huete-Pérez et al, 2019). The congruency/incongruency between the action tendencies associated with the distinct meanings of ambiguous words might account for the present findings.…”