PENGARUH JUMLAH CACING TANAH (Lumbricus rubellus) DAN WAKTU PENGOMPOSAN TERHADAP KANDUNGAN NPK LIMBAH MEDIA TANAM JAMUR TIRAM  SEBAGAI BAHAN AJAR BIOLOGI   Darwis Husain1, Sukarsono1, Nurul Mahmudati1 1Pendidikan Biologi FKIP Universtias Muhammadiyah Malang, e-mail : drw.darwishusain@gmail.com   ABSTRAK Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk  mengetahui adanya pengaruh jumlah cacing tanah dan waktu pengomposan terhadap kandungan NPK limbah media tanam jamur tiram, mengetahui kandungan NPK terbaik sesuai standar yang ditetapkan pemerintah yaitu N 0,4%, P 0,1% dan K 0,2% serta mengetahui penerapan hasil penelitian sebagai bahan ajar biologi. Jenis penelitian yang digunakan adalah True Experimental Research yang dilakukan pada tanggal 07 Juli-07 Agustus 2014 di Laboratorium Kimia Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang. Rancangan penelitian yang digunakan adalah Rancangan Acak Lengkap (RAL) Faktorial Design yang terdiri dari 2 faktor, faktor A merupakan jumlah cacing tanah (25, 30 dan 35 cacing) dan faktor B merupakan waktu pengomposan (5, 10 dan 15 hari). Analisis data menggunakan anava 2 jalan dan uji Duncan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa jumlah cacing tanah 35 cacing dan waktu pengomposan 15 hari merupakan perlakuan terbaik. Persentasi unsur hara terbaik yang dihasilkan yaitu N (3,85 %), P (0,78 %) dan K (1,45 %). Sedangkan Rasio C/N yang dihasilkan yaitu 10,51.   Kata Kunci: Limbah, Cacing Tanah, Waktu, Pengomposan, Kandungan NPK

A considerable amount of hydrocarbon resource is estimated to remain in the ground even after primary and secondary recoveries in the fields.As of 2003, the estimated oil-in-place from the forty-seven producing fields in Malaysia stand at about 20.1 BSTB, with a cumulative production of 4.9 BSTB and reserves of 2.5 BSTB[1]. This translates to an averaged recovery factor of only 36.8 percent for producing fields in Malaysia.For this reason, the remaining oil-in-place of 12.7 BSTB i.e. 63.2% of STOIIP will be the prime target for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) projects.On top of the value that could be gained through EOR applications, most of the fields are already entering maturing stage for primary and/or secondary depletion with declining oil rates and increasing water-cut and GOR trend. This situation will further merit the application of EOR processes.However, to date, there has been no full-field application of EOR in Malaysia, with the exception of a pilot WAG project in Dulang field[2, 3] and MEOR stimulation project in Bokor field[4–6]. In 2000, a screening study on seventy-two (72) reservoirs in Malaysia has identified almost a billion barrels of additional reserves that can be achieved through EOR.Majority of these potentials resides in a few major reservoirs, which carries about 60% of the total EOR potential7.The screening study has also identified several key EOR technologies that are most applicable in Malaysia, namely gas injection, chemical injection, and microbial.Thermal processes were investigated but have been ruled out due to the operational, properties of reservoir fluid, safety and commercial limitation of the methods for Malaysian offshore applications.However, transforming those potentials into real projects may face some challenges and change of operating philosophy.Factors such as facilities condition, sources of injection gas, reservoir characterization, technology applicability, and commercial aspects will play an important role in planning for an EOR projects in Malaysia. This paper presents the possible opportunities that could be realized by EOR applications, and discusses issues and challenges including change of mindsets required in making EOR a reality in Malaysia. Overview of Malaysian Oil and Gas History The earliest officially recorded oil find in Malaysia was made in July 1882 by the British Resident of the Baram district in Sarawak. The oil was used by the local residents for medicinal purposes and later for lighting lamps and waterproofing boats. Commercial exploitation of petroleum only began in 1910 when the Anglo-Saxon Petroleum Company, the forerunner of the present Sarawak Shell, which was granted the sole right to explore for petroleum in Sarawak, struck oil in the town of Miri, marking the start of the Malaysian petroleum industry. The Miri success encouraged further attempts to discover other onshore fields. However, only traces of petroleum were found, and these were not large enough to justify drilling activities. Consequently, by the 1950s, attention turned to the seas. This was made possible by new improvements in offshore petroleum technology. Marine seismic surveys were carried out for the first time in Sarawak in 1954. The shift offshore began to show results in 1962 with the discovery of oil in two areas offshore Sarawak. Other finds followed in rapid succession. In Peninsular Malaysia, petroleum exploration activities began in 1968 and the first oil field was discovered in 1971. As in many other developing countries, oil companies in Malaysia had been operating under what was known as a concession system. After the 1973 oil embargo, oil-producing countries of the world realize the importance of controlling their own petroleum resources.In Malaysia, it led to the promulgation of the Petroleum Development Act (PDA) in 1974 and the formation of a national oil company, PETRONAS, to ensure that the nation's petroleum resources could be developed in line with the needs and aspirations of the nation. PETRONAS, short for Petroliam Nasional Bhd, is wholly-owned by the Government, the corporation is vested with the entire oil and gas resources in Malaysia and is entrusted with the responsibility of developing and adding value to these resources.

No abstract

TX 75083-3836, U.S.A., fax 01-972-952-9435. AbstractA considerable amount of hydrocarbon resource is estimated to remain in the ground even after primary and secondary recoveries in the fields. As of 2003, the estimated oil-in-place from the forty-seven producing fields in Malaysia stand at about 20.1 BSTB, with a cumulative production of 4.9 BSTB and reserves of 2.5 BSTB 1 . This translates to an averaged recovery factor of only 36.8 percent for producing fields in Malaysia. For this reason, the remaining oil-in-place of 12.7 BSTB i.e. 63.2% of STOIIP will be the prime target for Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) projects. On top of the value that could be gained through EOR applications, most of the fields are already entering maturing stage for primary and/or secondary depletion with declining oil rates and increasing water-cut and GOR trend. This situation will further merit the application of EOR processes. However, to date, there has been no full-field application of EOR in Malaysia, with the exception of a pilot WAG project in Dulang field 2, 3 and MEOR stimulation project in Bokor field 4-6 .

This paper is a review of the gas fields development in Malaysia. The major subsurface engineering considerations for gas development include drive mechanism determination, well requirement, completion strategies, well deliverabilities, recovery factor and reservoir surveillance requirements. For surface engineering, the major considerations include offshore facilities function, platform configuration and sequence and process and compression requirements. The result of the review is the summary of some of the differences in gas fields development to date. Introduction The first gas field development in Malaysia started in 1982 when E-11 field, located offshore Sarawak, was developed. In the following years, four more gas fields namely Duyong, Jerneh, F-23 and F-6 were developed. The Duyong and Jerneh gas fields are located offshore Peninsular Malaysia while E-11, F-23 and F-6 fields are located offshore Sarawak (Figure 1). The fields are operated by PETRONAS Carigali Sendirian Berhad (PCSB), ESSO Production Malaysia Inc. (EPMl) and Sarawak SHELL Berhad (SSB), all are the PS Contractors to PETRONAS, the national oil company. In Peninsular Malaysia, the first development started in 1984 when Duyong field was developed by PCSB to provide the necessary offshore infrastructure for development of gas fields offshore Peninsular Malaysia. With the increasing demand for gas prompted by the onshore pipeline network installation by PETRONAS to fuel the power and industrial sector, sales from Jerneh, EPMI's first gas platform, was initiated in 1991. Gas demand is projected to continue to grow in the near future. To meet this growth, EPMI will develop another field, namely Lawit, for production in 1997. In addition, two gas reservoirs in existing producing oil fields were also developed in 1984. However, their development will not be discussed here. In Sarawak, E-11, being the closest to shore, was the first gas field developed by SSB. Delivery of gas to shore commenced in 1982. Shortly thereafter, in 1983 the second gas field F-23, came onstream. The third and the largest gas field, F-6, started production in 1987 Produced gas offshore Sarawak is delivered to Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) plant and fertilizer plant. A small portion was used for power generation. Another LNG project is currently under construction and will commence operation in 1995. Development of gas fields dedicated for the second LNG project is currently in progress. This paper discusses the major subsurface and surface engineering considerations for gas fields development in Malaysia. It will also outline some of the differences in gas fields development to-date. GEOLOGY OF PRODUCING FIELDS In Peninsular Malaysia, hydrocarbon accumulations are found in the Upper Oligocene - Upper Miocene alluvial-coastal plain clastics. P. 549

Whilst industry players are well versed about "Below Ground" risks, the treatment of "Above Ground" risks have yet to be fully explored and used in making investment decisions. To address this deficiency, some propose adjustment to the Discount Rate. Others adopt the use of Horner's pseudo-rate. And yet others suggest the use of an "Attrition" rate along with the cashflows. There is also a suggestion to use a probabilistic approach to cater for risks. This paper examines the concepts and methodology proposed to address "Above Ground" risks. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are discussed. Objectives/Scope Many ventures sanctioned at certain investment decision stages were found to be technically challenging to implement and economically less profitable than they were anticipated. Brasher et al. reported in 1990s that return on net assets by Majors was only 7% compared to their promises of meeting and/or exceeding the hurdle rate of 15%. Among the reasons contributing to ventures being under-performing may involve perception on "Above Ground" risks and its treatment. Methods, Procedures, Process Most companies have good understanding in dealing with Project Risks through multiple level technical data sets scenarios with deterministic approach. As for the Above Ground risks, there are several ways the Majors address them 1. Discount Rate Adjustment 2. Adoption of Horner's Pseudo-Rate and 3. Incorporation of Country Risk Rating (CRR)-derived Attrition rate. Results, Observations, Conclusions Proposed GCRR-derived Attrition Rate method will provide comfort to Decision maker on the impact of Above Ground Risk. From the business case shown, Project economics IRR & NPV@10% from initial assessment of IRR = 15% & US$ 214 Mill. to GCRR risk-adjusted IRR = 11% & US$ 22 Mill. Novel/Additive Information Recognizing the Above Ground Risks uncertainties and managing its impact early through improvised and GCRR-derived Attrition Rate approach would enable Decision Makers to make proper techno-commercial judgement on a project viability & informed decision on its attractiveness thus, safeguarding the Project value.

No abstract

This paper is an update to an earlier submission[1] and presents the current status and progress of several main EOR projects in Malaysia. As of January 2005, the estimated oil-in-place from producing fields in Malaysia stands at about 17.0 Bstb[2], with estimated ultimate recovery (EUR) of 5.62 Bstb. This translates to an averaged recovery factor of only 33.0 percent for producing fields in Malaysia. PETRONAS had realized the importance to further increase the recovery factor and so far has been pursuing EOR implementation in its fields aggressively. To date, a full-field WAG application in Dulang field[3,4] is already at its final stages of implementation. In addition, EOR projects have also been planned for another ten fields i.e. Tabu, Tapis, Guntong, Tiong/Kepong and Angsi in Peninsular Malaysia and Baronia, West Lutong, St. Joseph, Bokor and Baram in East Malaysia. Each of the project is currently at different level of maturity and some preliminary results for five selected EOR projects that are in the late stages of study or in the pilot phase; namely in Dulang[3,4], Tabu, Baronia, West Lutong5 and Tapis6 fields will be discussed in this paper. Introduction Malaysia oil reserves were in declining trend starting from 1994 to 2002 (Figure 1) but reversed its trend with the discoveries of deepwater fields. In 2004, Malaysia's average oil production was about 620 thousand barrels per day. With no new reserves addition, Malaysia would quickly deplete its reserves and at current rate of production, the expected reserves life is only about 19 years. With responsibility of developing and adding value to these resources, PETRONAS, short for Petroliam Nasional Berhad, was established in 1974, has the responsibility of developing and adding value to these key national resources. The corporation is vested with the entire oil and gas resources in Malaysia and is engaged in a wide range of activities, including upstream exploration and production to downstream of oil refining, petrochemicals, retail business, marketing, trading, gas processing and liquefaction as well as in logistic and maritime. Through various efforts undertaken by PETRONAS, the reserves have returned to an upward trend, and as at January 2005, the Malaysian oil reserves stood at 4.1 billion barrels2. In a matured exploration and producing area like Malaysia, one of the ways to increase oil recovery is through implementation of EOR projects. In view of this, PETRONAS had conducted a screening study in year 2000 to identify EOR potential in Malaysian oil reservoirs7. The outcome of the study indicated that an estimated un-risked incremental recovery from EOR is about 1 Bstb. It is also interesting to note that the year 2000 study identified CO2 miscible process as potential EOR in 4 out of the top 6 candidate reservoirs (Figure 2). EOR Initiatives Recognizing the potential of enhanced oil recovery in the fields, the national oil company endorsed a comprehensive IOR/EOR screening study in year 20007.The main processes studied were chemical, gas flooding and microbial enhanced oil recovery, processes that were considered having the most practical aspects in the Malaysian oil fields.The hydrocarbon and CO2 gas flooding in miscible or immiscible mode were found to be the most favorable processes, although the applications for miscible processes are limited due to depleted reservoir pressures.To further enhance sweep efficiency, mobility control (such as in WAG) and optimizing operating cost for the injectant seems to be the way forward.Most of the proposed gas flooding will be implemented together with water injection in water-alternating-gas (WAG) scheme.