2000. Importance of habitat structure to the arthropod food-web in Douglas-fir canopies. -Oikos 90: 139 -152.This study tested the hypothesis that habitat structure dictates the distribution and community composition of arboreal arthropods. A diverse arthropod assemblage of Douglas-fir canopies, which included Araneae, Psocoptera, Collembola and Homoptera, was chosen as a model system. Habitat structural diversity, defined as needle density and branching complexity of Douglas-fir branches, was manipulated in a four-month experiment by needle removal, thinning and tying of branches. Abundance of canopy spiders declined significantly following needle density reduction and branch thinning, branch tying significantly increased spider abundance. Distinct habitat utilization patterns were found among individual spider guilds. Orb weavers (Araneidae) dominated spider assemblages in structurally simple habitats, whereas tied branches were colonized primarily by sheet-web weavers (Linyphiidae) and nocturnal hunting spiders (Anyphaenidae and Clubionidae). Spider species richness and average body size of several spider species increased in structurally more complex habitats. Arboreal spiders appeared to be limited by strong bottom-up effects in the form of habitat quality and, to a lesser degree, prey availability. Habitat manipulations did not affect densities or biomass of flying arthropod colonists in the branch vicinity. Needle removal and branch thinning led to a significant decline in the abundance of Psocoptera and Collembola. Tying of branches resulted in an eight-fold increase in Collembola numbers, organisms most sensitive to habitat alterations. Canopy habitat structure modified vertical dispersal of Collembola from forest litter, which may have significant implications for arboreal consumers. Our results lend strong support to the importance of habitat structural diversity in explaining general patterns of arthropod abundance and diversity on plants.

Spiders and ants are potential competitors and mutual predators. Indirect evidence from previous research has suggested that ant foraging may significantly lower the abundance of arboreal spiders in young Douglas-fir plantations in western Oregon. This study tested the effect of foraging by ants, dominated by Camponotus spp., on spider assemblages in Douglas-fir canopies in a 5-month ant-exclusion experiment. The biomass of potential prey organisms on foliage, dominated by Psocoptera, increased significantly by 1.9- to 2.4-fold following ant exclusion. The removal of ants did not affect the abundance of flying arthropods in the vicinity of tree canopies as indicated by sticky trap catches. The abundance of hunting spiders, the majority being Salticidae, increased significantly by 1.5- to 1.8-fold in trees without ants in the late summer; neither the abundance of web-building spiders nor the average body size of hunting and web-building spiders were significantly affected by ant removal. Spider diversity and community structure did not differ significantly between control and ant-removal trees. The majority of prey captured by ants were Aphidoidea (48.1%) and Psocoptera (12.5%); spiders represented only 1.4% of the ants' diet. About 40% of observed ants were tending Cinara spp. aphids. Our observations suggest that the lower abundance of hunting spiders in control canopies with ants may be due to interference competition with ants resulting from ant foraging and aphid-tending activities. Direct predation of spiders by ants appeared to be of minor importance in this study system. This study did not provide sufficient evidence for exploitative competition for prey between ants and spiders.

Application . A quantitative understanding of the competitive influence of woody and herbaceous vegetation on young conifers is required to make appropriate vegetation management decisions in new plantations . Knowing the biological thresholds of competition for the survival and stem-volume growth of conifer seedlings, such as ponderosa pine, can provide a basis for evaluating the need and objectives for vegetation control treatments .Abstract . Patterns of survival and stem-volume growth for planted seedlings of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa Doug] . ex Laws .) competing with various levels of woody and herbaceous vegetation were derived from three previous studies-one in Oregon and two in Montana. Negative hyperbolic curves of opposite concavity describe the relation between the abundance of woody or herbaceous vegetation and (1) the survival and (2) the stem volume of the pine seedlings . From these curves, two types of competition thresholds for managing forest vegetation are identified : (1) maximum-response threshold-a level of vegetation abundance where additional control measures will not yield an appreciable increase in tree performance ; and (2) minimum-response threshold-a level of vegetation abundance that must be reached before additional control measures will yield an appreciable increase in tree performance . The maximum-and minimum-response thresholds for pine stem volume occurred at lower levels of vegetation abundance than those for pine survival . Thus, forest managers may need to consider ponderosa pine survival and stemvolume growth as separate objectives when managing woody and herbaceous vegetation in young plantations . Knowledge of maximum-and minimum-response thresholds also can be used to improve herbicide prescriptions .

The hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae Annand (Hemiptera: Adelgidae), is causing widespread mortality of eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis L. Carrière, in the eastern United States. In western North America, feeding by A. tsugae results in negligible damage to western hemlock, Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sargent. Host tolerance and presence of endemic predators may be contributing to the relatively low levels of injury to T. heterophylla caused by A. tsugae. Field surveys of the predator community associated with A. tsugae infestations on 116 T. heterophylla at 16 sites in Oregon and Washington were conducted every 4-6 wk from March 2005 through November 2006. Fourteen uninfested T. heterophylla were also surveyed across 5 of the 16 sites. Each sample tree was assigned an A. tsugae population score ranging from 0 to 3. Predators collected from A. tsugae-infested T. heterophylla represent 55 species in 14 families, listed in order of abundance: Derodontidae, Chamaemyiidae, Hemerobiidae, Coccinellidae, Cantharidae, Reduviidae, Miridae, Syrphidae, Chrysopidae, Coniopterygidae, Staphylinidae, Anthocoridae, Nabidae, and Raphidiidae. Laricobius nigrinus Fender (Coleoptera: Derodontidae), Leucopis argenticollis Zetterstedt (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae), and Leucopis atrifacies (Aldrich) (Chamaemyiidae) were the most abundant predators; together comprising 59% of predator specimens recovered. Relationships among predators and A. tsugae were determined through community structure analysis. The abundances of Laricobius spp. larvae, L. nigrinus adults, Leucopis spp. larvae, and L. argenticollis adults were found to be positively correlated to A. tsugae population score. Predators were most abundant when the two generations of A. tsugae eggs were present. L. argenticollis and L. atrifacies were reared on A. tsugae in the laboratory, and host records show them to feed exclusively on Adelgidae.

A combination of antiaggregation and aggregation pheromones was tested for protecting stands of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii (Mirb.) Franco) at high risk for infestation by the Douglas-fir beetle (Dendroctonuspseudotsugae Hopkins). The antiaggregation pheromone, 3-methylcyclohex-2-en-1-one (MCH), was applied in a bubble capsule formulation to the perimeter of 1-ha circular plots at a rate of 60 g/plot. Treated plots also had three or four clusters of four Lindgren funnel traps baited with frontalin, seudenol, 1-methylcyclohex-2-en-1-ol, and ethanol located outside of the plot but within 160 m of the boundary. Mean (±SE) accumulated catches in all traps per plot were 73 658 ± 19 721 Douglas-fir beetles and 12 892 ± 2 513 Thanasimusundatulus (Say), a predator of the Douglas-fir beetle. The mean percentage of Douglas-fir trees ≥20 cm DBH that were mass attacked was reduced by 80% within the treated plots compared with the untreated plots. However, there was an eightfold increase in the percentage of trees mass attacked in the area outside the treated plots in the vicinity of the funnel traps. The net effect of the treatment was to concentrate mass-attacked trees within a limited area outside of the protected stand. Our results indicate that Douglas-fir beetle antiaggregation and aggregation pheromones can be used effectively to reduce the probability of infestation in small, high-value stands.

The hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae Annand (Hemiptera: Adelgidae), is causing widespread mortality of eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis L. Carrière, in the eastern United States. In western North America, feeding by A. tsugae results in negligible damage to western hemlock, Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sargent. Host tolerance and presence of endemic predators may be contributing to the relatively low levels of injury to T. heterophylla caused by A. tsugae. Field surveys of the predator community associated with A. tsugae infestations on 116 T. heterophylla at 16 sites in Oregon and Washington were conducted every 4-6 wk from March 2005 through November 2006. Fourteen uninfested T. heterophylla were also surveyed across 5 of the 16 sites. Each sample tree was assigned an A. tsugae population score ranging from 0 to 3. Predators collected from A. tsugae-infested T. heterophylla represent 55 species in 14 families, listed in order of abundance: Derodontidae, Chamaemyiidae, Hemerobiidae, Coccinellidae, Cantharidae, Reduviidae, Miridae, Syrphidae, Chrysopidae, Coniopterygidae, Staphylinidae, Anthocoridae, Nabidae, and Raphidiidae. Laricobius nigrinus Fender (Coleoptera: Derodontidae), Leucopis argenticollis Zetterstedt (Diptera: Chamaemyiidae), and Leucopis atrifacies (Aldrich) (Chamaemyiidae) were the most abundant predators; together comprising 59% of predator specimens recovered. Relationships among predators and A. tsugae were determined through community structure analysis. The abundances of Laricobius spp. larvae, L. nigrinus adults, Leucopis spp. larvae, and L. argenticollis adults were found to be positively correlated to A. tsugae population score. Predators were most abundant when the two generations of A. tsugae eggs were present. L. argenticollis and L. atrifacies were reared on A. tsugae in the laboratory, and host records show them to feed exclusively on Adelgidae.

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