Objective Australian research on volunteering is rich and diverse, but also increasingly fragmented. In an attempt to promote a more integrated study of volunteering, we review volunteering research conducted in Australia, using volunteering journey as a framework. Specifically, we summarise literature on volunteer characteristics, motivations, benefits, psychological contract, commitment, and withdrawal. Method A comprehensive review yielded 152 studies on volunteering conducted in Australia. Results We find that volunteers have distinct characteristics, such as being older, better connected, employed, and residing in rural areas. There are a variety of reasons that prompt individuals to volunteer, and this motivation does change over time. Volunteering leads to better psychological well‐being, as well as increases in social and human capital. Volunteer expectations and commitment are key drivers of ongoing volunteering. Finally, stress, work–family conflict, and negative interactions with others lead to volunteer withdrawal. Conclusion A lot is known about volunteering, however, future advancement of the field will depend on better integration across disciplines and domains. Currently, volunteering is viewed as a set of distinct stages, and a more integrated approach is required. We also note a lack of theoretical and methodological rigour in many Australian studies on volunteering.

We propose that distinct leadership competencies differ in their development over time. Extending the integrative model of leader development (Day et al., 2009), we further propose that leader identity will form complex relationships with leadership competencies over time. To test these propositions, we use longitudinal data (i.e., 5 months, four measurement points) of the 80 in total high-potential executives in a corporate leadership development program. We find a significant difference in the initial levels and the changes of eight distinct leadership competencies. We also find that leader identity relates to the development of certain-but not all-leadership competencies. Finally, we demonstrate the importance of developing leadership competencies by linking them to career advancement (i.e., job promotion). These findings are discussed in light of their theoretical and practical implications.

BackgroundChronic homelessness is a problem characterised by longstanding inability to attain or maintain secure accommodation. Longitudinal research with homeless populations is challenging, and randomised controlled trials that evaluate the effectiveness of intensive, case management interventions aimed at improving housing and health-related outcomes for chronically homelessness people are scant. More research is needed to inform programmatic design and policy frameworks in this area. This study protocol details an evaluation of the Journey to Social Inclusion – Phase 2 program, an intervention designed to reduce homelessness and improve outcomes in chronically homeless adults.Methods/designJ2SI Phase 2 is a three-year, mixed methods, multi-site, RCT that enrolled 186 participants aged 25 to 50 years between 07 January 2016 and 30 September 2016 in Melbourne. The intervention group (n = 90 recruited) receives the J2SI Phase 2 program, a trauma-informed intervention that integrates intensive case management and service coordination; transition to housing and support to sustain tenancy; and support to build social connections, obtain employment and foster independence. The comparison group (n = 96 recruited) receives standard service provision. Prior to randomisation, participants completed a baseline survey. Follow-up surveys will be completed every six months for three years (six in total). In addition to self-report data on history of homelessness and housing, physical and mental health, substance use, quality of life, social connectedness and public service utilisation, linked administrative data on participants’ public services utilisation (e.g., hospitalisation, justice system) will be obtained for the three-year period pre- and post-randomisation. Semi-structured, qualitative interviews will be conducted with a randomly selected subset of participants and service providers at three time-points to explore changes in key outcome variables and to examine individual experiences with the intervention and standard service provision. An economic evaluation of the intervention and associated costs will also be undertaken.DiscussionResults of this trial will provide robust evidence on the effectiveness of J2SI Phase 2 compared to standard service provision. If the intervention demonstrates effectiveness in improving housing, health, quality-of-life, and other social outcomes, it may be considered for broader national and international dissemination to improve outcomes among chronically homeless adults.Trial registrationAustralian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12616000162415 (retrospectively registered 10-February-2016).Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-019-6644-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Although Rudolph et al. (2021) outlined how the current pandemic will affect the work and life of employees, they have overlooked the potential disruption this pandemic will have on volunteersa sizable segment of any developed economy (Volunteers, 2018)-and their volunteering experiences. Here, we define volunteering as time willingly and freely given to benefit another person, group, or cause (Wilson, 2000). We observed that volunteering has been disrupted substantially by the pandemic in our research with State Emergency Services in Western Australia, in which 96% of emergency service personnel are volunteers (Department of Emergency and Fire Services, 2019). The current pandemic has already affected the volunteering experiences of this essential segment of the Australian economy. The pandemic restrictions have disrupted the availability of emergency services volunteers to participate in face-to-face training activities and combat impending natural hazards such as bushfires, floods, and cyclones. For example, in times of disasters, additional emergency services volunteers usually come from interstate and overseas, yet such help is difficult to source due to the pandemic-imposed travel restrictions. Further, Australian emergency services should account for the possibility of hundreds of volunteers working on the front lines needing to be isolated if they become infected during the pandemic. In addition to these economic disruptions that the pandemic will likely cause for emergency services and other organizations employing volunteers, we argue that there are likely to be psychological disruptions and challenges. The challenges stem partly from the need to comply with the pandemicimposed restrictions and partly from the unique features of volunteering work.Rudolph et al. ( 2021) have discussed 10 areas, which will be most affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Building on and extending these topics, we discuss two areas that will likely be disrupted by the pandemic for volunteers and their parent organizations: (a) leadership and (b) interactions with community stakeholders and associated challenges for volunteers and volunteering experiences. We conclude with some ideas on how we can tackle these challenges using the theories and research from industrial-organizational psychology as applied to the volunteering context. Challenge 1: Directive leadership is good for pandemic but bad for inclusivity The COVID-19 pandemic has created unique challenges for leaders managing volunteers. Rudolph et al. (2021) cited evidence suggesting that directive leadership tends to be particularly effective during times of crises such as the financial meltdowns of 2008(Stoker et al., 2019. These predictions are based on threat-rigidity hypothesis, suggesting that organizations respond to external threats such as financial meltdowns or global pandemics with actions that reflect rigidity (Staw et al., 1981). In particular, they implement directive leadership, which is based on

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