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Considering the underachievement on modal shift and environmental objectives for freight transport, scholars and policy makers recurrently ask how more road freight can be shifted to rail and waterborne transport. The current study simulates transport and modal distribution effects for several scenarios in which modal shift policy measures are strengthened, expanded, combined, and harmonized across borders in the Nordics. Found transport effects were then used in an environmental model to assess implications for energy use and emissions of CO2,eq, NOx, and particulate matter, gaining insights into which policy measures are more effective or complement each other, and whether international harmonization might increase effectiveness, and modal shift. From our simulations, a Norwegian ecobonus scheme for rail yields larger modal shift away from road than a similar ecobonus for sea transport. Facilitating longer freight trains yields more modal shift but has high policy costs. Effects of harmonizing policies across Nordic countries vary but can be strengthened by combining different measures. However, even for scenarios with strong policy measures, reductions in CO2,eq emissions do not exceed 3.6% in 2030 while sometimes increasing local air pollution. Modal shift policy should therefore not exclusively be regarded as environmental strategy, although it may contribute to other policy objectives.

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This paper presents experiences from pilot-projects with battery-electric trucks in Norway, focusing on purchasing processes, technology, vehicle choices, user experience and various performance aspects. Furthermore, we discuss the electrification potential for battery-electric trucks and compare their total costs of ownership and associated socio-economic costs with internal combustion engine (ICE) trucks for a range of technological maturity scenarios. The results show that experiences have generally been positive but tailoring of use patterns is often required. Furthermore, at their current maturity level, battery-electric trucks could, to some extent, replace typical use of Norwegian ICE trucks, depending on the situation. In terms of costs, we expect that battery-electric light distribution trucks will first become competitive with ICE trucks when technology reaches mass production.World Electric Vehicle Journal 2020, 11, 5 2 of 21 vehicles reach the market. In the fall of 2019, however, four FCHE-trucks, converted from diesel truck chassis', will be phased into operation for a major distributor of groceries in central Norway.The aim of the present paper was to identify and present experiences gained by pilots with BE-trucks in Norway so far. Building on information from pilot users, this work further provides insights into the potential and costs for electrification in both the near term and longer term. This is done by (1) looking at how pilot vehicles are used and what adjustments have had to be made in daily use patterns compared to similar patterns for ICE trucks, (2) analysing user patterns for different vehicle segments, (3) developing cost models that compare total costs of ownership of BE-(and FCHE-) trucks versus ICE-trucks in a number of scenarios for technology maturity, and (4) assessing socio-economic costs of phasing in zero-emission trucks. While the first two analyses thus focus on BE-trucks, in the latter two, it was possible and insightful to also consider FCHE solutions. Understanding user experiences and technological and economic barriers and enablers perceived by operators is crucial for achieving the ambitious uptake of zero-emission vehicles that Norway envisions over the next decade. Particularly for freight vehicles, there seems to be a knowledge gap regarding these topics.

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