This paper discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the different methods that separate net ecosystem exchange (NEE) into its major components, gross ecosystem carbon uptake (GEP) and ecosystem respiration (R-eco). In particular, we analyse the effect of the extrapolation of night-time values of ecosystem respiration into the daytime; this is usually done with a temperature response function that is derived from long-term data sets. For this analysis, we used 16 one-year-long data sets of carbon dioxide exchange measurements from European and US-American eddy covariance networks. These sites span from the boreal to Mediterranean climates, and include deciduous and evergreen forest, scrubland and crop ecosystems. long-term (annual) data sets, does not reflect the short-term temperature sensitivity that is effective when extrapolating from night- to daytime. Specifically, in summer active ecosystems the long-term temperature sensitivity exceeds the short-term sensitivity. Thus, in those ecosystems, the application of a long-term temperature sensitivity to the extrapolation of respiration from night to day leads to a systematic overestimation of ecosystem respiration from half-hourly to annual time-scales, which can reach > 25% for an annual budget and which consequently affects estimates of GEP. Conversely, in summer passive (Mediterranean) ecosystems, the long-term temperature sensitivity is lower than the short-term temperature sensitivity resulting in underestimation of annual sums of respiration. temperature sensitivity of R-eco from eddy covariance data that applies this to the extrapolation from night- to daytime, and that further performs a filling of data gaps that exploits both, the covariance between fluxes and meteorological drivers and the temporal structure of the fluxes. While this algorithm should give less biased estimates of GEP and R-eco, we discuss the remaining biases and recommend that eddy covariance measurements are still backed by ancillary flux measurements that can reduce the uncertainties inherent in the eddy covariance data. [References: 53

The FLUXNET2015 dataset provides ecosystem-scale data on CO 2 , water, and energy exchange between the biosphere and the atmosphere, and other meteorological and biological measurements, from 212 sites around the globe (over 1500 site-years, up to and including year 2014). These sites, independently managed and operated, voluntarily contributed their data to create global datasets. Data were quality controlled and processed using uniform methods, to improve consistency and intercomparability across sites. The dataset is already being used in a number of applications, including ecophysiology studies, remote sensing studies, and development of ecosystem and Earth system models. FLUXNET2015 includes derived-data products, such as gap-filled time series, ecosystem respiration and photosynthetic uptake estimates, estimation of uncertainties, and metadata about the measurements, presented for the first time in this paper. In addition, 206 of these sites are for the first time distributed under a Creative Commons (CC-BY 4.0) license. This paper details this enhanced dataset and the processing methods, now made available as open-source codes, making the dataset more accessible, transparent, and reproducible.

Cloud cover increases the proportion of diffuse radiation reaching the Earth's surface and affects many microclimatic factors such as temperature, vapour pressure deficit and precipitation. We compared the relative efficiencies of canopy photosynthesis to diffuse and direct photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) for a Norway spruce forest (25-year-old, leaf area index 11 m 2 m À2 ) during two successive 7-day periods in August. The comparison was based on the response of net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO 2 to PPFD. NEE and stomatal conductance at the canopy level (G canopy ) was estimated from halfhourly eddy-covariance measurements of CO 2 and H 2 O fluxes. In addition, daily courses of CO 2 assimilation rate (A N ) and stomatal conductance (G s ) at shoot level were measured using a gas-exchange technique applied to branches of trees. The extent of spectral changes in incident solar radiation was assessed using a spectroradiometer.We found significantly higher NEE (up to 150%) during the cloudy periods compared with the sunny periods at corresponding PPFDs. Prevailing diffuse radiation under the cloudy days resulted in a significantly lower compensation irradiance (by ca. 50% and 70%), while apparent quantum yield was slightly higher (by ca. 7%) at canopy level and significantly higher (by ca. 530%) in sun-acclimated shoots. The main reasons for these differences appear to be (1) more favourable microclimatic conditions during cloudy periods, (2) stimulation of photochemical reactions and stomatal opening via an increase of blue/red light ratio, and (3) increased penetration of light into the canopy and thus a more equitable distribution of light between leaves.Our analyses identified the most important reason of enhanced NEE under cloudy sky conditions to be the effective penetration of diffuse radiation to lower depths of the canopy. This subsequently led to the significantly higher solar equivalent leaf area compared with the direct radiation. Most of the leaves in such dense canopy are in deep shade, with marginal or negative carbon balances during sunny days. These findings show that the energy of diffuse, compared with direct, solar radiation is used more efficiently in assimilation processes at both leaf and canopy levels.

No abstract

The aim of this work is to review the current knowledge on the effects of plant metabolism (C3, C4, and CAM) on root exudation and on the methods of exudate collection as well as the use of such exudates for analyses, testing of microbial response, degradation of pollutants, enzymatic activities, and occurrence of allelochemicals. We examine the advantages and disadvantages of each method as related to the downstream use of the exudates. The use of continuous percolation of solid cultivation medium with adjustment of nutrient‐solution strength appears to be a promising methodology for the determination of root exudation rates and qualitative composition of exuded compounds. The method mimics rhizosphere conditions, minimizing the artificial accumulation of compounds, alteration of plasma‐membrane permeability, ATPase activity, and the impacts of inhibitors or stimulators of root enzymes. Of particular significance is the fact that the adjustment of strength of nutrient solution and percolation enables universal and also long‐term use of the method, allowing high exudation yield by minimizing influx and maximizing efflux rates of exuded compounds at high nutrient‐solution strength. Furthermore, it facilitates assessment of the effect on soil microbial populations and their ability to degrade pollutants. Enzymatic activities can be assessed when a low strength of nutrient solution is used, with percolation of the exudates directly into tested soils. Composition of root exudates, regulation of root enzymes, and plant response to nutrient deficiency can be assessed by measuring net efflux or influx rates. The impact of heavy metals and other type of mechanical, chemical, and biological stresses differs according to the type of plant metabolism. This has significant consequences on transformations in plant communities, both structurally and functionally, and impacts upon crop nutrition, with respect to global climate change, and the use of plants for phytoremediation purposes. Understanding the effects of different types of plant metabolism on root exudation with respect to genetic regulation of synthetic pathways through root enzymes and transport systems presents an important direction for future research.

No abstract

The parameter Q 10 is commonly used to express the relationship between soil CO 2 efflux and soil temperature. One advantage of this parameter is its application in a model expression of respiration losses of different ecosystems. Correct specification of Q 10 in these models is indispensable. Soil surface CO 2 efflux and soil temperature at different depths were measured in a 21-year-old Norway spruce stand and a mountain grassland site located at the Experimental Ecological Study Site Bily Kriz, Beskydy Mts. (NE Czech Republic), using automated gasometric systems. A time-delay and goodness-of-fit between soil CO 2 efflux and soil temperature at different measuring depths were determined. Wide ranges of values for the time-delay of CO 2 efflux in response to temperature, Q 10 and the determination coefficient (R 2 ) between CO 2 efflux and temperature were obtained at the both sites. The values of Q 10 and the CO 2 time-delay increased with depth, while the R 2 of the CO 2 -temperature relationship significantly decreased. Soil temperature records obtained close to the soil surface showed the highest values of R 2 and the lowest value of the time-delay at both sites. Measurement of soil temperature at very shallow soil layer, preferably at the soil surface, is highly recommended to determine useable values of Q 10 . We present a new procedure to normalize Q 10 values for soil temperatures measured at different depths that would facilitate comparison of different sites.

Chamber measurements of trace gas fluxes between the land surface and the atmosphere have been conducted for almost a century. Different chamber techniques, including static and dynamic, have been used with varying degrees of success in estimating greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O) fluxes. However, all of these have certain disadvantages which have either prevented them from providing an adequate estimate of greenhouse gas exchange or restricted them to be used under limited conditions. Generally, chamber methods are relatively low in cost and simple to operate. In combination with the appropriate sample allocations, chamber methods are adaptable for a wide variety of studies from local to global spatial scales, and they are particularly well suited for in situ and laboratory-based studies. Consequently, chamber measurements will play an important role in the portfolio of the Pan-European long-term research infrastructure Integrated Carbon Observation System. The respective working group of the Integrated Carbon Observation System Ecosystem Monitoring Station Assembly has decided to ascertain standards and quality checks for automated and manual chamber systems instead of defining one or several standard systems provided by commercial manufacturers in order to define minimum requirements for chamber measurements. The defined requirements and recommendations related to chamber measurements are described here.