Periodontitis is the most common chronic inflammatory condition occurring in the human oral cavity, but our knowledge on its contribution to oral cancer is rather limited. To define crosstalk between chronic periodontitis and oral cancer, we investigated whether Porphyromonas gingivalis, a major pathogen of chronic periodontitis, plays a role in oral cancer progression. To mimic chronic irritation by P. gingivalis in the oral cavity, oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells were infected with P. gingivalis twice a week for 5 weeks. Repeated infection of oral cancer cells by P. gingivalis resulted in morphological changes of host cancer cells into an elongated shape, along with the decreased expression of epithelial cell markers, suggesting acquisition of an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype. The prolonged exposure to P. gingivalis also promoted migratory and invasive properties of OSCC cells and provided resistance against a chemotherapeutic agent, all of which are described as cellular characteristics undergoing EMT. Importantly, long-term infection by P. gingivalis induced an increase in the expression level of CD44 and CD133, well-known cancer stem cell markers, and promoted the tumorigenic properties of infected cancer cells compared to non-infected controls. Furthermore, increased invasiveness of P. gingivalis-infected OSCC cells was correlated with enhanced production of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-1 and MMP-10 that was stimulated by interleukin-8 (IL-8) release. This is the first report demonstrating that P. gingivalis can increase the aggressiveness of oral cancer cells via epithelial-mesenchymal transition-like changes and the acquisition of stemness, implicating P. gingivalis as a potential bacterial risk modifier.

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Major obstacles to improving the prognosis of patients with oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) are the acquisition of resistance to chemotherapeutic agents and development of metastases. Recently, inflammatory signals are suggested to be one of the most important factors in modulating chemoresistance and establishing metastatic lesions. In addition, epidemiological studies have demonstrated that periodontitis, the most common chronic inflammatory condition of the oral cavity, is closely associated with oral cancer. However, a correlation between chronic periodontitis and chemoresistance/metastasis has not been well established. Herein, we will present our study on whether sustained infection with Porphyromonas gingivalis, a major pathogen of chronic periodontitis, could modify the response of OSCC cells to chemotherapeutic agents and their metastatic capability in vivo. Tumor xenografts composed of P. gingivalis–infected OSCC cells demonstrated a higher resistance to Taxol through Notch1 activation, as compared with uninfected cells. Furthermore, P. gingivalis–infected OSCC cells formed more metastatic foci in the lung than uninfected cells.

This study aimed to investigate whether quercetin exerts anticancer effects on oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cell lines and to elucidate its mechanism of action. These anticancer effects in OSCC cells were assessed using an MTT assay, flow cytometry (to assess the cell cycle), wound-healing assay, invasion assay, Western blot analysis, gelatin zymography, and immunofluorescence. To investigate whether quercetin also inhibits transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1)-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in human keratinocyte cells, HaCaT cells were treated with TGF-β1. Overall, our results strongly suggest that quercetin suppressed the viability of OSCC cells by inducing cell cycle arrest at the G2/M phase. However, quercetin did not affect cell viability of human keratinocytes such as HaCaT (immortal keratinocyte) and nHOK (primary normal human oral keratinocyte) cells. Additionally, quercetin suppresses cell migration through EMT and matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) in OSCC cells and decreases TGF-β1-induced EMT in HaCaT cells. In conclusion, this study is the first, to our knowledge, to demonstrate that quercetin can inhibit the survival and metastatic ability of OSCC cells via the EMT-mediated pathway, specifically Slug. Quercetin may thus provide a novel pharmacological approach for the treatment of OSCCs.Molecules 2020, 25, 757 2 of 15 Statistical AnalysesStatistical analyses were performed by a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by a Bonferroni post-test, whereby three or more experimental groups were compared. p-values of < 0.05 were considered statistically significant. All data are the means ± standard error of the mean (SEM).

The development of pharmaceutical agents possessing anti-invasive and anti-metastatic abilities, as well as apoptotic activity, is important in decreasing the incidence and recurrence of oral cancer. Cancer cells are known to acquire invasiveness not only through epigenetic changes, but also from inflammatory stimuli within the tumor microenvironment. Accordingly, the identification of agents that can suppress the inflammation-promoted invasiveness of cancer cells may be important in treating cancer and improving the prognosis of patients with cancer. Acetylshikonin, a flavonoid with anti-inflammatory activity, inhibits proliferation and induces apoptosis of oral cancer cells. In the present study, the anti-invasive effect of acetylshikonin on YD10B oral cancer cells infected with Porphyromonas gingivalis, a major pathogen of chronic periodontitis, and the mechanisms involved were investigated. Firstly, we examined whether P. gingivalis infection increased the invasiveness of YD10B cells. Results suggested that YD10B oral cancer cells become more aggressive when they are infected with P. gingivalis. Secondly, acetylshikonin significantly inhibited the invasion of P. gingivalis-infected YD10B cells by suppressing IL-8 release and IL-8-dependent MMP release. These data suggest that acetylshikonin may be a useful preventive and therapeutic candidate for oral cancer that is chronically infected with periodontal pathogens.