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Iran is one of the two major centres of Pistacia diversity and the main producer of pistachios in the world. About 282 Iranian pistachio genotypes (Pistacia spp.), together with 22 foreign cultivars (P. vera), were genotyped using 10 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers to analyse the genetic diversity and relationships among Pistacia species and cultivars. The results revealed that the genetic diversity within P. atlantica subsp. kurdica was considerably lower than in P. vera or P. khinjuk. Principal coordinate analysis revealed a clear separation between the different Pistacia spices, as well as between the Iranian and foreign cultivars. AMOVA analysis showed that the variation between the species, between different populations, and within populations accounted for 41, 9, and 50% of the total variation, respectively. The results demonstrated that the study of genetic diversity and relationships among Pistacia species and cultivars using SSR markers provides important information for the collection and conservation of pistachio germplasm. In addition, the Iranian cultivars had a broader genetic background than that of the foreign cultivars. Thus, they are very important for genetic conservation and the planning of future breeding programmes. We also determined the different levels of genetic diversity that exist between and within the species and populations and showed that gene flow occurs between the Iranian cultivars and wild-type P. vera populations. The study provides practical information that policy-makers and scientists can apply to the conservation and sustainable use of all the species studied.

During recent years, there has been increasing awareness of the importance of adopting a holistic view of biodiversity, including agricultural biodiversity, conservation for sustainable utilization and development. These principles have been underlined in the Convention on Biological Diversity and the European efficiency resources towards 2050. Thus critical issues are now to understand the distribution and extent of genetic diversity available to breeders and stakeholders, the kind and range of characterization, how to face the problem of continuous expanding of germplasm to be conserved. Focusing on the case study of hazelnut which is a crop of great importance for European countries, the paper describes a resourceful strategy for re-organizing and sharing hazelnut genetic resources through an upgrading of knowledge on their value and uses. The paper summarizes the progresses so far and provides a 'launching pad' for future researches. The brief review discusses also the recent progresses in recovery, characterization conservation and uses of European hazelnut germplasm achieved by 068 AGRI GEN RES SAFENUT which was one of the 17 Action financed by the European Commission-Directorate General for Agriculture and Rural Development. The current status on the morphological and molecular characterization of the in situ and ex situ of the most important European collections, the rescue and preservation of new accessions recovered on farm were discussed underling critical aspects. A better understanding of hazelnut genetic diversity and its distribution is essential for its conservation and use as well as the harmonization of the morphological and biochemical descriptors. The importance of traditional knowledge is also considered as integrated part of the multidisciplinary approach useful to rationalize genetic resources maintained in the collections. Thus improving the characterization on cultivated and wild forms through the development of a core collection, is the further step to achieve a more effective management and use of European nuts germplasm.

Knowledge of pistachio genetic diversity is necessary for the formulation of appropriate management strategies for the conservation of these species. We analysed amplified fragment length polymorphisms in a total of 216 pistachio accessions, which included seven populations from three wild species (Pistacia vera, Pistacia khinjuk and Pistacia atlantica subsp. kurdica) and most of the important cultivars from Iran, together with some foreign cultivars. High levels of genetic diversity were detected within the Iranian cultivars, and they showed a clear separation from foreign cultivars, as revealed by unweighted pair group method with arithmetic averaging and supported by analysis of molecular variance. The lowest amount of polymorphism was observed in P. atlantica subsp. kurdica, which showed the lowest number of total bands as compared to the other species. This revealed strong genetic erosion of P. atlantica subsp. kurdica, which reflected a severe decline in habitat and over-exploitation. Based on these findings, strategies are proposed for the genetic conservation and management of pistachio species and cultivars.

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The metabolic profiling of pistachio (Pistacia vera) aqueous extracts from two different cultivars, namely 'Bianca' and 'Gloria', was monitored over the months from May to September employing high field NMR spectroscopy. A large number of water-soluble metabolites were assigned by means of 1D and 2D NMR experiments. The change in the metabolic profiles monitored over time allowed the pistachio development to be investigated. Specific temporal trends of amino acids, sugars, organic acids and other metabolites were observed and analysed by multivariate Partial Least Squares (PLS) analysis. Statistical analysis showed that while in the period from May to September there were few differences between the two cultivars, the ripening rate was different.