Mountain ecosystems are sensitive and reliable indicators of climate change. Long-term studies may be extremely useful in assessing the responses of high-elevation ecosystems to climate change and other anthropogenic drivers from a broad ecological perspective. Mountain research sites within the LTER (Long-Term Ecological Research) network are representative of various types of ecosystems and span a wide bioclimatic and elevational range. Here, we present a synthesis and a review of the main results from ecological studies in mountain ecosystems at 20 LTER sites in Italy, Switzerland and Austria covering in most cases more than two decades of observations. We analyzed a set of key climate parameters, such as temperature and snow cover duration, in relation to vascular plant species composition, plant traits, abundance patterns, pedoclimate, nutrient dynamics in soils and water, phenology and composition of freshwater biota. The overall results highlight the rapid response of mountain ecosystems to climate change, with site-specific characteristics and rates. As temperatures increased, vegetation cover in alpine and subalpine summits increased as well. Years with limited snow cover duration caused an increase in soil temperature and microbial biomass during the growing season. Effects on freshwater ecosystems were also observed, in terms of increases in solutes, decreases in nitrates and changes in plankton phenology and benthos communities. This work highlights the importance of comparing and integrating long-term ecological data collected in different ecosystems for a more comprehensive overview of the ecological effects of climate change. Nevertheless, there is a need for (i) adopting co-located monitoring site networks to improve our ability to obtain sound results from cross-site analysis, (ii) carrying out further studies, in particular short-term analyses with fine spatial and temporal resolutions to improve our understanding of responses to extreme events, and (iii) increasing comparability and standardizing protocols across networks to distinguish local patterns from global patterns.

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1. The Italian biodiversity is among the richest in Europe. In particular, the Italian butterfly fauna includes almost 300 native species, and within the Euro-Mediterranean area is second in species richness only to Turkey. Italy, however, has suffered from the lack of suitable instruments to evaluate the extinction risk of individual butterfly species on the basis of internationally recognised standards.2. We have been working to create the first Italian Red List for butterflies. The achievement of this goal was divided into three actions: (i) the institution of a network of experts on butterfly conservation; (ii) the evaluation of the extinction risk for all Italian butterfly species; (iii) the integration of the baseline information provided by the Italian Red Lists of other taxa crucial for future evaluations of biodiversity trends in Italy.3. Assessments of extinction risks were based on the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria following their most updated guidelines and were discussed during workshops involving experts from different Italian regions. All native Italian butterflies were included in the evaluation. The whole national population of each species was evaluated, including those on large and small islands.4. Of 289 butterfly species assessed, one has become Regionally Extinct recently. Threatened species are 18 in total, corresponding to 6.3% of the species assessed. The majority of Italian butterfly populations are stable.5. The main threats to Italian butterflies are natural reforestation, as a consequence of rural land abandonment, agricultural intensification and climate change for species living at high altitude.

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Mountain ecosystems are particularly sensitive to changes in climate and land cover, but at the same time, they can offer important refuges for species on the opposite of the more altered lowlands. To explore the potential role of mountain ecosystems in butterfly conservation and to assess the vulnerability of the alpine species, we analyzed the short-term changes (2006–2008 vs. 2012–2013) of butterflies’ distribution along altitudinal gradients in the NW Italian Alps. We sampled butterfly communities once a month (62 sampling stations, 3 seasonal replicates per year, from June to August) by semi-quantitative sampling techniques. The monitored gradient ranges from the montane to the alpine belt (600–2700 m a.s.l.) within three protected areas: Gran Paradiso National Park (LTER, Sitecode: LTER_EU_IT_109), Orsiera Rocciavrè Natural Park and Veglia Devero Natural Park. We investigated butterflies’ temporal changes in accordance with a hierarchical approach to assess potential relationships between species and community level. As a first step, we characterized each species in terms of habitat requirements, elevational range and temperature preferences and we compared plot occupancy and altitudinal range changes between time periods (2006–2008 vs. 2012–2013). Secondly, we focused on community level, analyzing species richness and community composition temporal changes. The species level analysis highlighted a general increase in mean occupancy level and significant changes at both altitudinal boundaries. Looking at the ecological groups, we observed an increase of generalist and highly mobile species at the expense of the specialist and less mobile ones. For the community level, we noticed a significant increase in species richness, in the community temperature index and a tendency towards homogenization within communities. Besides the short time period considered, butterflies species distribution and communities changed considerably. In light of these results, it is fundamental to continue monitoring activities to understand if we are facing transient changes or first signals of an imminent trend.

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Litter weevil communities were investigated in two different types of montane forest in Ecuador: foothill evergreen forest, present in the Otongachi Integral Reserve between 800 and 1000 m, and tropical montane cloud forest (TMCF), present in the Otonga Integral Reserve between 1600 and 2300 m. Sampling was conducted along elevation gradients, applying the entomological sifting method to 19 sampling transects (11 in Otonga and 8 in Otongachi). The taxa collected were identified as morphospecies, since the majority of them are still undescribed. A total of 510 specimens were sampled, belonging to 100 different morphospecies, 85 of which were found in Otonga and 15 in Otongachi. No species in common between the two areas were found, despite the fact that the distance is extremely small (approximately 12 km). The Otonga area, regardless of primary or secondary forest habitats, had higher mean species richness. In both areas, the majority of species were found in a small number of stations and were sampled in a small number of specimens. A dominant and ubiquitous species was present only in Otongachi. The analysis of the community composition was carried out according to different categories of environmental variables (Otonga vs. Otongachi, forest type, elevation, litter and canopy coverage characteristics). Two well-differentiated coenoses were found, influenced firstly by the differences between the two reserves, secondarily by the elevation gradient and, to a lesser extent, by the forest type and other environmental variables. Some morphospecies characteristic of a specific type of biocoenosis could be identified. The study highlighted how most litter weevil species are strictly associated with a peculiar microhabitat and have a very narrow elevation and spatial range; the weevil communities can be strongly affected by heavy human impact. The results confirm that the tropical forests, in particular the TMCFs, host great biodiversity and that the majority of species are strictly associated with a single site; therefore, particular protection for these habitats should be granted. However, the non-significant variation between primary and secondary TMCFs indicates that, when correct management is carried out, a limited disturbance can be tolerated with only a limited loss of biodiversity.