The exosome complex of 3'-5' exonucleases participates in RNA maturation and quality control and can rapidly degrade RNA-protein complexes in vivo. However, the purified exosome showed weak in vitro activity, indicating that rapid RNA degradation requires activating cofactors. This work identifies a nuclear polyadenylation complex containing a known exosome cofactor, the RNA helicase Mtr4p; a poly(A) polymerase, Trf4p; and a zinc knuckle protein, Air2p. In vitro, the Trf4p/Air2p/Mtr4p polyadenylation complex (TRAMP) showed distributive RNA polyadenylation activity. The presence of the exosome suppressed poly(A) tail addition, while TRAMP stimulated exosome degradation through structured RNA substrates. In vivo analyses showed that TRAMP is required for polyadenylation and degradation of rRNA and snoRNA precursors that are characterized exosome substrates. Poly(A) tails stimulate RNA degradation in bacteria, suggesting that this is their ancestral function. We speculate that this function was maintained in eukaryotic nuclei, while cytoplasmic mRNA poly(A) tails acquired different roles in translation.

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Staphylococcus aureus RNAIII is one of the largest regulatory RNAs, which controls several virulence genes encoding exoproteins and cell-wall-associated proteins. One of the RNAIII effects is the repression of spa gene (coding for the surface protein A) expression. Here, we show that spa repression occurs not only at the transcriptional level but also by RNAIII-mediated inhibition of translation and degradation of the stable spa mRNA by the double-strand-specific endoribonuclease III (RNase III). The 3' end domain of RNAIII, partially complementary to the 5' part of spa mRNA, efficiently anneals to spa mRNA through an initial loop-loop interaction. Although this annealing is sufficient to inhibit in vitro the formation of the translation initiation complex, the coordinated action of RNase III is essential in vivo to degrade the mRNA and irreversibly arrest translation. Our results further suggest that RNase III is recruited for targeting the paired RNAs. These findings add further complexity to the expression of the S. aureus virulon.

Ribosome stalling on eukaryotic mRNAs triggers cotranslational RNA and protein degradation through conserved mechanisms. For example, mRNAs lacking a stop codon are degraded by the exosome in association with its cofactor, the SKI complex, whereas the corresponding aberrant nascent polypeptides are ubiquitinated by the E3 ligases Ltn1 and Not4 and become proteasome substrates. How translation arrest is linked with polypeptide degradation is still unclear. Genetic screens with SKI and LTN1 mutants allowed us to identify translation-associated element 2 (Tae2) and ribosome quality control 1 (Rqc1), two factors that we found associated, together with Ltn1 and the AAA-ATPase Cdc48, to 60S ribosomal subunits. Translation-associated element 2 (Tae2), Rqc1, and Cdc48 were all required for degradation of polypeptides synthesized from NonStop mRNAs (Non-Stop protein decay; NSPD). Both Ltn1 and Rqc1 were essential for the recruitment of Cdc48 to 60S particles. Polysome gradient analyses of mutant strains revealed unique intermediates of this pathway, showing that the polyubiquitination of Non-Stop peptides is a progressive process. We propose that ubiquitination of the nascent peptide starts on the 80S and continues on the 60S, on which Cdc48 is recruited to escort the substrate for proteasomal degradation.quality control | Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Ribosome biogenesis in eukaryotes depends on the coordinated action of ribosomal and nonribosomal proteins that guide the assembly of preribosomal particles. These intermediate particles follow a maturation pathway in which important changes in their protein composition occur. The mechanisms involved in the coordinated assembly of the ribosomal particles are poorly understood. We show here that the association of preribosomal factors with pre-60S complexes depends on the presence of earlier factors, a phenomenon essential for ribosome biogenesis. The analysis of the composition of purified preribosomal complexes blocked in maturation at specific steps allowed us to propose a model of sequential protein association with, and dissociation from, early pre-60S complexes for several preribosomal factors such as Mak11, Ssf1, Rlp24, Nog1, and Nog2. The presence of either Ssf1 or Nog2 in complexes that contain the 27SB pre-rRNA defines novel, distinct pre-60S particles that contain the same pre-rRNA intermediates and that differ only by the presence or absence of specific proteins. Physical and functional interactions between Rlp24 and Nog1 revealed that the assembly steps are, at least in part, mediated by direct protein-protein interactions.The synthesis of ribosomes is one of the major metabolic pathways of a cell. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, ribosome assembly begins in the nucleolus after the transcription of two rRNA precursors, the 35S RNA (precursor of the 18S, 5.8S, and 25S rRNAs) and the pre-5S RNA, by RNA polymerases I and III, respectively. The synthesized pre-rRNAs are modified extensively at multiple positions specified by small nucleolar ribonucleoparticles (snoRNPs) or specific enzymes (1,22,33). During rRNA maturation, the 5Ј and 3Ј external transcribed sequences (ETS) and internal transcribed sequence 1 (ITS1) and ITS2 are removed from the 35S precursor RNA by wellordered cleavages and trimming events, which require the enzymatic activities of helicases and endo-and exonucleases (19,37).Cotranscriptional assembly of ribosomal and nonribosomal proteins in the nucleolus gives rise to a large ribonucleoprotein particle corresponding to the 90S preribosomal complexes described more than 20 years ago (35) and recently characterized biochemically (8,14). These early preribosomal complexes are further converted to smaller pre-40S (43S) and pre-60S (66S) particles, precursors of the mature small and large ribosomal subunits. The pre-40S complexes, each containing a precursor of the 18S rRNA, are exported into the cytoplasm, where they give rise to the mature 40S ribosomal particles (36). Most of the large ribosomal subunit proteins are absent from the 90S preribosomes (8,14) and associate in the nucleolus with the pre-rRNA, probably concomitantly with the formation of the pre-60S particles. During pre-60S particle maturation, 27S prerRNA intermediates are converted into 25S and 5.8S mature rRNAs by successive and well-ordered steps. Several pre-60S particles, which differ in their RNA and protein compositions,...

Eukaryotic ribosome maturation depends on a set of well ordered processing steps. Here we describe the functional characterization of yeast Nog2p (Ynr053cp), a highly conserved nuclear protein. Nog2p contains a putative GTP-binding site, which is essential in vivo. Kinetic and steady-state measurements of the levels of pre-rRNAs in Nog2p-depleted cells showed a defect in 5.8S and 25S maturation and a concomitant increase in the levels of both 27SB S and 7S S precursors. We found Nog2p physically associated with large pre-60S complexes highly enriched in the 27SB and 7S rRNA precursors. These complexes contained, besides a subset of ribosomal proteins, at least two additional factors, Nog1p, another putative GTP-binding protein, and Rlp24p (Ylr009wp), which belongs to the Rpl24e family of archaeal and eukaryotic ribosomal proteins. In the absence of Nog2p, the pre-60S ribosomal complexes left the nucleolus, but were retained in the nucleoplasm. These results suggest that transient, possibly GTPdependent association of Nog2p with the pre-ribosomes might trigger late rRNA maturation steps in ribosomal large subunit biogenesis.

Eukaryotic pre-ribosomes go through cytoplasmic maturation steps before entering translation. The nucleocytoplasmic proteins participating in these late stages of maturation are reimported to the nucleus. In this study, we describe a functional network focused on Rei1/Ybr267w, a strictly cytoplasmic pre-60S factor indirectly involved in nuclear 27S pre-ribosomal RNA processing. In the absence of Rei1, the nuclear import of at least three other pre-60S factors is impaired. The accumulation in the cytoplasm of a small complex formed by the association of Arx1 with a novel factor, Alb1/Yjl122w, inhibits the release of the putative antiassociation factor Tif6 from the premature large ribosomal subunits and its recycling to the nucleus. We propose a model in which Rei1 is a key factor for the coordinated dissociation and recycling of the last pre-60S factors before newly synthesized large ribosomal subunits enter translation.

Describing at a genomic scale how mutations in different genes influence one another is essential to the understanding of how genotype correlates with phenotype and remains a major challenge in biology. Previous studies pointed out the need for accurate measurements of not only synthetic but also buffering interactions in the characterization of genetic networks and functional modules. We developed a sensitive and efficient method that allows such measurements at a genomic scale in yeast. In a pilot experiment (41 genome-wide screens), we quantified the fitness of 140,000 double deletion strains relative to the corresponding single mutants and identified many genetic interactions. In addition to synthetic growth defects (validated experimentally with factors newly identified as genetically interfering with mRNA degradation), most of the identified genetic interactions measured weak epistatic effects. These weak effects, rarely meaningful when considered individually, were crucial to defining specific signatures for many gene deletions and had a major contribution in defining clusters of functionally related genes.epistasis ͉ functional genomics ͉ genetic screen ͉ mRNA decapping ͉ Saccharomyces cerevisiae F ollowing the completion of the genomic sequence for Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a systematic gene deletion library was built as a tool to link genes to functions and phenotypes. Yet, the phenotypic consequences of single deletions are rarely sufficient to define the function of genes. Moreover, very little is known of the phenotypic influences that different mutations have on each other. A large panel of responses can be observed when combining mutations, from aggravating to neutral, buffering, and even alleviating effects. Several high-throughput genetic screen methods, such as SGA (synthetic genetic array), dSLAM, and SLAM (synthetic lethality analyzed by microarray) (1-3), analyze the growth defect of combining a given query mutation with every gene deletion from the library of tagged nonessential yeast knockouts. These approaches are useful in identifying the strong synthetic defects that are seen for only a minor fraction of all of the possible gene deletion pairs (Ϸ0.5%) (4). However, they are not suited to evaluating more general buffering relationships between genes. Yet, recent studies have demonstrated the importance of accurate measurements of the complete spectrum of genetic interactions to define functional gene modules (5, 6). Broader quantitative measurements of genetic interactions are obtained in epistatic miniarrays (E-MAPs) (5, 7) but at the expense of coverage, because the E-MAP results depend on high-density genetic interaction matrixes made possible by focusing on logically connected gene subsets. Here, we present a method that we call GIM for ''genetic interaction mapping,'' which is not limited to a subset of genes, and allows sensitive and quantitative measurements of the complete spectrum of genetic interactions.Double mutant populations are efficiently obtained by mating and sporulatio...