Ergot alkaloids are mycotoxins that can increase host plant resistance to above- and below-ground herbivores. Some morning glories (Convolvulaceae) are infected by clavicipitaceous fungi (Periglandula spp.) that produce high concentrations of ergot alkaloids in seeds-up to 1000-fold greater than endophyte-infected grasses. Here, we evaluated the diversity and distribution of alkaloids in seeds and seedlings and variation in alkaloid distribution among species. We treated half the plants with fungicide to differentiate seed-borne alkaloids from alkaloids produced de novo post-germination and sampled seedling tissues at the cotyledon and first-leaf stages. Seed-borne alkaloids in Ipomoea amnicola, I. argillicola, and I. hildebrandtii remained primarily in the cotyledons, whereas I. tricolor allocated lysergic acid amides to the roots while retaining clavines in the cotyledons. In I. hildebrandtii, almost all festuclavine was found in the cotyledons. These observations suggest differential allocation of individual alkaloids. Intraspecific patterns of alkaloid distribution did not vary between fungicide-treated and control seedlings. Each species contained four to six unique ergot alkaloids and two species had the ergopeptine ergobalansine. De novo production of alkaloids did not begin immediately, as total alkaloids in fungicide-treated and control seedlings did not differ through the first-leaf stage, except in I. argillicola. In an extended time-course experiment with I. tricolor, de novo production was detected after the first-leaf stage. Our results demonstrate that allocation of seed-borne ergot alkaloids varies among species and tissues but is not altered by fungicide treatment. This variation may reflect a response to selection for defense against natural enemies.
Homicide is a preventable public health issue that has detrimental effects on both victims and witnesses and increases health care costs. From 2006 to 2015, homicide has been the second leading cause of death for youth aged 15 to 24 years in the United States. Educational attainment has been widely regarded as a protective factor against justice system involvement and violent injury. We conducted a time-trend analysis examining educational attainment levels for male victims of homicide aged 18 to 24 years in the City of Chicago, 2006 to 2015, to describe the educational attainment of youth homicide victims in Chicago. We used data from the Illinois Violent Death Reporting System and the United States Census Bureau from 2006 to 2015. Cases included male victims of homicide, 18 to 24 years of age, the injury leading to death occurred in the City of Chicago, injury leading to death occurred between 2006 and 2015, and whether or not a high school degree or equivalent had been obtained. Data were described over time using percentages and rates per 100,000 with 95% confidence intervals. Chicago male homicide victims aged 18 to 24 years were less likely to have at least a high school degree than the general population of males aged 18 to 24 years in Chicago. The homicide rate for males aged 18 to 24 years without a high school degree was significantly higher than those with a high school degree or equivalent for every time point, except 2007, and also in four of the seven Chicago Planning Regions when compared with the other three. We found there is a concentrated risk pool for undereducated male youth in Chicago.
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