Linguistic ethnography provides insight into how communication occurs between individuals and institutions, while situating these local actions within wider social, political and historical contexts (Copland & Creese, 2015) and has proven to be a particularly effective tool for developing our understanding of individuals’ lived multilingual realities (see Unamuno, 2014) and societal multilingualism. Turning the ‘reflexive gaze’ that is central to ethnography (Clifford & Marcus, 1986) back onto linguistic ethnography itself, we argue that where complex multilingual interactions are the object of study, more attention must be given to how multilingualism affects each aspect of the process of actually doing linguistic ethnography. In this paper we outline the development of three principles that we put forward as being essential in developing and conducting contemporary linguistic ethnography in multilingual settings. The principles are: 1) Researching multilingually; 2) Researching collaboratively; and 3) Researching responsively.
Malawi's language-in-education policies have been through numerous changes since the colonial period. In 1996 a policy directive was announced which encouraged the use of the mother tongue in the early stages of education, before transitioning to English. However, this policy was never effectively implemented and, in 2014, an English-only policy was announced. This has resulted in renewed debate around which languages are suitable for use as mediums of instruction in the country. This article will discuss the Malawian language-in-education policy context, with a focus on university education and the prevailing attitudes which students and staff exhibit towards English. This will be done through an analysis of data collected through focus groups and interviews with students and staff in Malawian universities. The results show that, while English is viewed positively and as suitable for use within universities, it is not viewed uncritically and there are complex attitudes towards the language. English skills are viewed as a valuable resource; however, so too are multilingual language skills. Students and staff also display positive attitudes towards the use of a multilingual language policy in the university, suggesting that the recent policy changes in Malawi do not reflect stakeholder attitudes.
Multilingualism is widespread amongst individuals and communities in African countries. However, language-in-education policies across the continent continue to privilege monolingual approaches to language use in the classroom. In this paper we highlight the colonial origins of these monolingual ideologies and discuss the detrimental effects which arise when learners� linguistic repertoires are not welcomed within the education system. We draw attention to major themes within education across a range of contexts: policy vagueness, teachers as policy implementers, and the creation and imposition of boundaries. We advocate for a language-in-education approach which brings the outside in, which welcomes individuals� lived multilingual realities and which values these as resources for learning. We highlight the ways in which translanguaging could represent a positive shift to the way in which multilingual language practices are talked about, and can contribute to decolonising language policy in African contexts. We conclude by calling to action those working on education and policy to ensure that learners and teachers are better supported. We call ultimately for a rethinking of multilingualism.
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