The presence of persister cells has been proposed as a factor in biofilm resilience. In the present study we investigated whether persister cells are present in Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc) biofilms, what the molecular basis of antimicrobial tolerance in Bcc persisters is, and how persisters can be eradicated from Bcc biofilms. After treatment of Bcc biofilms with high concentrations of various antibiotics often a small subpopulation survived. To investigate the molecular mechanism of tolerance in this subpopulation, Burkholderia cenocepacia biofilms were treated with 1024 µg/ml of tobramycin. Using ROS-specific staining and flow cytometry, we showed that tobramycin increased ROS production in treated sessile cells. However, approximately 0.1% of all sessile cells survived the treatment. A transcriptome analysis showed that several genes from the tricarboxylic acid cycle and genes involved in the electron transport chain were downregulated. In contrast, genes from the glyoxylate shunt were upregulated. These data indicate that protection against ROS is important for the survival of persisters. To confirm this, we determined the number of persisters in biofilms formed by catalase mutants. The persister fraction in ΔkatA and ΔkatB biofilms was significantly reduced, confirming the role of ROS detoxification in persister survival. Pretreatment of B. cenocepacia biofilms with itaconate, an inhibitor of isocitrate lyase (ICL), the first enzyme in the glyoxylate shunt, reduced the persister fraction approx. 10-fold when the biofilms were subsequently treated with tobramycin. In conclusion, most Bcc biofilms contain a significant fraction of persisters that survive treatment with high doses of tobramycin. The surviving persister cells downregulate the TCA cycle to avoid production of ROS and at the same time activate an alternative pathway, the glyoxylate shunt. This pathway may present a novel target for combination therapy.

Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315 is representative of a highly problematic group of cystic fibrosis (CF) pathogens. Eradication of B. cenocepacia is very difficult with the antimicrobial therapy being ineffective due to its high resistance to clinically relevant antimicrobial agents and disinfectants. RND (Resistance-Nodulation-Cell Division) efflux pumps are known to be among the mediators of multidrug resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. Since the significance of the 16 RND efflux systems present in B. cenocepacia (named RND-1 to -16) has been only partially determined, the aim of this work was to analyze mutants of B. cenocepacia strain J2315 impaired in RND-4 and RND-9 efflux systems, and assess their role in the efflux of toxic compounds. The transcriptomes of mutants deleted individually in RND-4 and RND-9 (named D4 and D9), and a double-mutant in both efflux pumps (named D4-D9), were compared to that of the wild-type B. cenocepacia using microarray analysis. Microarray data were confirmed by qRT-PCR, phenotypic experiments, and by Phenotype MicroArray analysis. The data revealed that RND-4 made a significant contribution to the antibiotic resistance of B. cenocepacia, whereas RND-9 was only marginally involved in this process. Moreover, the double mutant D4-D9 showed a phenotype and an expression profile similar to D4. The microarray data showed that motility and chemotaxis-related genes appeared to be up-regulated in both D4 and D4–D9 strains. In contrast, these gene sets were down-regulated or expressed at levels similar to J2315 in the D9 mutant. Biofilm production was enhanced in all mutants. Overall, these results indicate that in B. cenocepacia RND pumps play a wider role than just in drug resistance, influencing additional phenotypic traits important for pathogenesis.

Many putative virulence factors of Burkholderia cenocepacia are controlled by various quorum sensing (QS) circuits. These QS systems either use N-acyl homoserine lactones (AHL) or cis-2-dodecenoic acid (“Burkholderia diffusible signal factor”, BDSF) as signalling molecules. Previous work suggested that there is little cross-talk between both types of systems. We constructed mutants in B. cenocepacia strain J2315, in which genes encoding CepI (BCAM1870), CciI (BCAM0239a) and the BDSF synthase (BCAM0581) were inactivated, and also constructed double (ΔcepIΔBCAM0581, ΔcciIΔBCAM0581 and ΔcepIΔcciI) mutants and a triple (ΔcepIΔcciIΔBCAM0581) mutant. Subsequently we investigated phenotypic properties (antibiotic susceptibility, biofilm formation, production of AHL and BDSF, protease activity and virulence in Caenorhabditis elegans) and measured gene expression in these mutants, and this in the presence and absence of added BDSF, AHL or both. The triple mutant was significantly more affected in biofilm formation, antimicrobial susceptibility, virulence in C. elegans, and protease production than either the single or double mutants. The ΔBCAM0581 mutant and the ΔcepIΔBCAM0581 and ΔcciIΔBCAM0581 double mutants produced significantly less AHL compared to the WT strain and the ΔcepI and ΔcciI single mutant, respectively. The expression of cepI and cciI in ΔBCAM0581, was approximately 3-fold and 7-fold (p<0.05) lower than in the WT, respectively. The observed differences in AHL production, expression of cepI and cciI and QS-controlled phenotypes in the ΔBCAM0581 mutant could (at least partially) be restored by addition of BDSF. Our data suggest that, in B. cenocepacia J2315, AHL and BDSF-based QS systems co-regulate the same set of genes, regulate different sets of genes that are involved in the same phenotypes and/or that the BDSF system controls the AHL-based QS system. As the expression of the gene encoding the C6-HSL synthase CciI (and to a lesser extent the C8-HSL synthase CepI) is partially controlled by BDSF, it seems likely that the BDSF QS systems controls AHL production through this system.

Efflux transporters have a considerable role in the multidrug resistance (MDR) of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, an important nosocomial pathogen. In this study, 45 P. aeruginosa clinical strains, with an MDR phenotype, have been isolated in a hospital of Northern Italy and characterized to identify the mechanisms responsible for their fluoroquinolone (FQ) resistance. These isolates were analyzed for clonal similarity, mutations in genes encoding the FQ targets, overexpression of specific Resistance Nodulation-cell Division efflux pumps, and search for mutations in their regulatory genes. The achieved results suggested that the mutations in genes encoding ciprofloxacin targets represented the main mechanism of FQ resistance of these strains; 97.8% of these isolates showed mutations in gyrA, 28.9% in gyrB, 88.9% in parC, and 6.7% in parE. Another mechanism of resistance was overexpression of the efflux pumps in some representative strains. In particular, overexpression of MexXY-OprM drug transporter was found in five isolates, whereas overexpression of MexCD-OprJ was detected in two isolates; surprisingly, in one of these last two isolates, also overexpression of MexAB-OprM pump was identified.

The discovery of new compounds that are able to inhibit the growth of Burkholderia cenocepacia is of primary importance for cystic fibrosis patients. Here, the mechanism of resistance to a new pyridine derivative already shown to be effective against Mycobacterium tuberculosis and to have good activity toward B. cenocepacia was investigated. Increased expression of a resistancenodulation-cell division (RND) efflux system was detected in the resistant mutants, thus confirming their important roles in B. cenocepacia antibiotic resistance.

Burkholderia cenocepacia is a Gram-negative opportunistic pathogen belonging to the Burkholderia cepacia complex (Bcc). It is spread in a wide range of ecological niches, and in cystic fibrosis patients, it is responsible for serious infections. Its eradication is very difficult due to the high level of intrinsic resistance to clinically relevant antibiotics. One of the main resistance mechanisms in clinical isolates is represented by efflux systems that are able to extrude a variety of molecules, such as antibiotics, out of the cell. Resistance-Nodulation-Cell Division (RND) efflux pumps are known to be mediators of multidrug resistance in Gram-negative bacteria. Since now, the significance of the RND efflux systems in B. cenocepacia has been partially determined. However, the analysis of the completely sequenced genome of B. cenocepacia J2315 allowed the identification of 16 operons coding for these transporters. We focused our attention on the role of these pumps through the construction of several deletion mutants. Since manipulating B. cenocepacia J2315 genome is difficult, we used a peculiar inactivation system, which enables different deletions in the same strain. The characterization of our mutants through transcriptome and phenotype microarray analysis suggested that RND efflux pumps can be involved not only in drug resistance but also in pathways important for the pathogenesis of this microorganism. The aim of this review is an updated overview on host-pathogen interactions and drug resistance, particularly focused on RND-mediated efflux mechanisms, highlighting the importance of molecular techniques in the study of B. cenocepacia.

Background: The Burkholderia cenocepacia J2315 is Gram-negative bacterium that is a pathogen for cystic fibrosis (CF) patients. It displays a high-level of resistance to most antimicrobial drugs. In Gram-negative bacteria, the ResistanceNodulation-Cell Division (RND) transporter family has a poorly understood role in multidrug resistance. In a previous publication we analysed the RND-4 and RND-9 transporters by microarray analysis. The obtained results suggested that only RND-4 contributes to the antibiotic resistance. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of this efflux transporter from a proteomic point of view.