The existence of episodic memory in non-human animals is a debated topic that has been investigated using different methodologies that reflect diverse theoretical approaches to its definition. A fundamental feature of episodic memory is recalling after incidental encoding, which can be assessed if the recall test is unexpected [1]. We used a modified version of the "Do as I Do" method [2], relying on dogs' ability to imitate human actions, to test whether dogs can rely on episodic memory when recalling others' actions from the past. Dogs were first trained to imitate human actions on command. Next, they were trained to perform a simple training exercise (lying down), irrespective of the previously demonstrated action. This way, we substituted their expectation to be required to imitate with the expectation to be required to lie down. We then tested whether dogs recalled the demonstrated actions by unexpectedly giving them the command to imitate, instead of lying down. Dogs were tested with a short (1 min) and a long (1 hr) retention interval. They were able to recall the demonstrated actions after both intervals; however, their performance declined more with time compared to conditions in which imitation was expected. These findings show that dogs recall past events as complex as human actions even if they do not expect the memory test, providing evidence for episodic-like memory. Dogs offer an ideal model to study episodic memory in non-human species, and this methodological approach allows investigating memory of complex, context-rich events. VIDEO ABSTRACT.
10This study demonstrates for the first time deferred imitation of novel actions in dogs (Canis 11 familiaris) with retention intervals of 1.5 minutes and memory of familiar actions with 12 intervals ranging from 0.40 to 10 minutes. 13Eight dogs were trained using the 'Do as I do' method to match their own behaviour to 14 actions displayed by a human demonstrator. They were then trained to wait for a short 15 interval to elapse before they were allowed to show the previously demonstrated action. The 16 dogs were then tested for memory of the demonstrated behaviour in various conditions, also 17 with the so-called 'two-action procedure' and in a control condition without demonstration. 18 Dogs were typically able to reproduce familiar actions after intervals as long as 10 minutes, 19 also if distracted by different activities during the retention interval and were able to match 20 their behaviour to the demonstration of a novel action after a delay of 1 minute. In the two-21 action procedure, dogs were typically able to imitate the novel demonstrated behaviour after 22 retention intervals of 1.5 minutes. 23The ability to encode and recall an action after a delay implies that facilitative processes 24 cannot exhaustively explain the observed behavioural similarity and that dogs' imitative 25 abilities are rather based on an enduring mental representation of the demonstration. 26Furthermore the ability to imitate a novel action after a delay without previous practice 27 suggests presence of declarative memory in dogs. 28 29
We investigated whether dogs remember their spontaneous past actions relying on episodic-like memory. Dogs were trained to repeat a small set of actions upon request. then we tested them on their ability to repeat other actions produced by themselves, including actions performed spontaneously in everyday situations. Dogs repeated their own actions after delays ranging from a few seconds to 1 hour, with their performance showing a decay typical of episodic memory. The combined evidence of representing own actions and using episodic-like memory to recall them suggests a far more complex representation of a key feature of the self than previously attributed to dogs. our method is applicable to various species, paving the way for comparative investigations on the evolution and complexity of self-representation.
This study demonstrates long-term declarative memory of imitative actions in a non-human animal species. We tested 12 pet dogs for their ability to imitate human actions after retention intervals ranging from 1 to 24 h. For comparison, another 12 dogs were tested for the same actions without delay between demonstration and recall. Our test consisted of a modified version of the Do as I Do paradigm, combined with the two-action procedure to control for non-imitative processes. Imitative performance of dogs remained consistently high independent of increasing retention intervals, supporting the idea that dogs are able to retain mental representations of human actions for an extended period of time. The ability to imitate after such delays supports the use of long-term declarative memory.
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