Smoking cigarettes is the major risk factor for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). COPD is a condition associated with chronic pulmonary inflammation, characterized by macrophage activation, neutrophil recruitment, and cell injury. Many substances contained in cigarette smoke, including reactive oxygen species (ROS), have been proposed to be responsible for the inflammatory process of COPD. However, this issue remains unsettled. By gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) we show that acrolein and crotonaldehyde, two alpha,beta-unsaturated aldehydes, are contained in aqueous cigarette smoke extract (CSE) at micromolar concentrations and mimic CSE in evoking the release of the neutrophil chemoattractant IL-8 and of the pleiotropic inflammatory cytokine TNF-alpha from the human macrophagic cell line U937. In addition, acrolein (10-30 microM) released IL-8 also from cultured human alveolar macrophages and THP-1 macrophagic cells. 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (30-100 microM), an endogenous alpha,beta-unsaturated aldehyde that is abundant in lungs of patients with COPD, stimulated the release of IL-8 from U937 cells, whereas the saturated aldehyde, acetaldehyde, was ineffective. CSE-evoked IL-8 release was remarkably (> 80%) inhibited by N-acetyl-cysteine (0.1-3 mM) or glutathione monoethyl ester (1-3 mM). Both compounds, by forming covalent adducts (Michael adducts), completely removed unsaturated aldehydes from CSE. Our data demonstrate that alpha,beta-unsaturated aldehydes are major mediators of cigarette smoke-induced macrophage activation, and suggest that they might contribute to pulmonary inflammation associated with cigarette smoke.

We have previously demonstrated that the expression of the soluble extracellular domain of the transmembrane ligand for Notch receptors, Jagged 1 (sJ1), in NIH 3T3 cells results in the formation of a matrix-dependent chord-like phenotype, the loss of contact inhibition of growth, and an inhibition of pro-␣1(I) collagen expression. In an effort to define the mechanism by which sJ1 induces this phenotype, we report that sJ1 transfectants display biochemical and cytoskeletal alterations consistent with the activation of Src. Indeed, cotransfection of sJ1 transfectants with a dominant-negative mutant of Src resulted in the loss of matrix-dependent chord formation and correlated with the restoration of type I collagen expression and contact inhibition of growth. We also report that the sJ1-mediated induction of Src activity and related phenotypes, including chord formation, may result from the inhibition of endogenous Jagged 1-mediated Notch signaling since it was not possible to detect an sJ1-dependent induction of CSL-dependent transcription in these cells. Interestingly, NIH 3T3 cells transfected with dominant-negative (but not constitutively active) mutants of either Notch 1 or Notch 2 displayed a similar Src-related phenotype as the sJ1 transfectants. These data suggest that the ability of sJ1 to mediate chord formation is Src-dependent and requires the repression of endogenous Jagged 1-mediated Notch signaling, which is tolerant to the destabilization of the actin cytoskeleton, a mediator of cell migration.

Prostate carcinoma is among the most common causes of cancer-related death in men, representing 15% of all male malignancies in developed countries. Neuroendocrine differentiation has been associated with tumor progression, poor prognosis and with the androgen-independent status. Currently, no successful therapy exists for advanced, castration-resistant disease. Because hypoxia has been linked to prostate cancer progression and unfavourable outcome, we sought to determine whether hypoxia would impact the degree of neuroendocrine differentiation of prostate cancer cells, in vitro. Results exposure of LNCaP cells to low oxygen tension induced a neuroendocrine phenotype, associated with an increased expression of the transcription factor neurogenin3 and neuroendocrine markers, such as neuron-specific enolase, chromogranin A and β3-tubulin. Moreover, hypoxia triggered a significant decrease of Notch 1 and Notch 2 mRNA and protein expression, with subsequent down regulation of Notch-mediated signalling, as demonstrated by reduced levels of the Notch target genes, Hes1 and Hey1. Neuroendocrine differentiation was promoted by attenuation of Hes1 transcription, as cells expressing a dominant negative form of Hes1 displayed increased levels of neuroendocrine markers under normoxic conditions. Although hypoxia down regulated Notch 1 and Notch 2 mRNA transcription and receptor activation also in the androgen independent cell lines, PC3 and Du145, it did not change the extent of NE differentiation in these cultures, suggesting that androgen sensitivity may be required for transdifferentiation to occur. Conclusions hypoxia induces neuroendocrine differentiation of LNCaP cells in vitro, which appears to be driven by the inhibition of Notch signalling with subsequent down-regulation of Hes1 transcription.

Prostate cancer is still the second cause of cancer-related death among men. Although patients with metastatic presentation have an ominous outcome, the vast majority of PCs are diagnosed at an early stage. Nonetheless, even among patients with clinically localized disease the outcome may vary considerably. Other than androgen sensitivity, little is known about which other signaling pathways are deranged in aggressive, localized cancers. The elucidation of such pathways may help to develop innovative therapies aimed at specific molecular targets. We report that in a hormone-sensitive prostate cancer cell line, LNCaP, Notch3 was activated by hypoxia and sustained cell proliferation and colony formation in soft agar. Hypoxia also modulated cellular cholesterol content and the number and size of lipid rafts, causing a coalescence of small rafts into bigger clusters; under this experimental condition Notch3 migrated from the non-raft into the raft compartment where it co-localized with the γ-secretase complex. We also looked at human prostate cancer biopsies and found that expression of Notch3 positively correlated with Gleason score and with expression of carbonic anhydrase IX, a marker of hypoxia. In conclusion, hypoxia triggers the activation of Notch3 which, in turn, sustains proliferation of prostate cancer cells. Notch3 pathway represents a promising target for adjuvant therapy in patients with prostate cancer.

Angiogenesis is critical in melanoma progression and metastasis and relies on the synthesis and release of proangiogenic molecules such as vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A and fibroblast growth factors (FGFs). S100A13 is a small calcium-binding protein that facilitates the release of FGF-1, the prototype of the FGF family. S100A13 is upregulated in astrocytic gliomas, in which it correlates with VEGF-A expression, microvessel density and tumor grading, and promotes a more aggressive, invasive phenotype in lung cancer-derived cell lines. To investigate the involvement of S100A13 in human cutaneous melanoma, we analyzed a series of 87 cutaneous melanocytic lesions: 14 common acquired melanocytic nevi, 14 atypical, so-called 'dysplastic' nevi, 45 melanomas (17 radial growth phase and 28 vertical growth phase) and 14 melanoma metastases. Main clinical and pathological features, including histotype, Breslow thickness, Clark's level and outcome were recorded. Microvessel density was determined with CD105/endoglin staining. Semiquantitative determination of S100A13, FGF-1 and VEGF-A protein expression was obtained by immunostaining. Quantification of S100A13 mRNA was achieved by real-time PCR. We found that S100A13 was expressed in melanocytic lesions; compared with benign nevi, S100A13 protein expression was significantly upregulated in melanomas (P ¼ 0.024), in which it correlated positively with the intensity of VEGF-A staining (P ¼ 0.041) and microvessel density (P ¼ 0.007). The level of expression of S100A13 mRNA also significantly increased with progression of disease, from radial growth phase (0.7 ± 0.7) to vertical growth phase (3.6 ± 3.1) to metastases (7.0 ± 7.0) (Po0.001). Furthermore, S100A13 mRNA correlated positively with VEGF-A (P ¼ 0.023), TNM stage (P ¼ 0.05), risk of relapse (P ¼ 0.014) and status at follow-up (P ¼ 0.024). In conclusion, S100A13 is expressed in melanocytic lesions when the angiogenic switch occurs and it may cooperate with VEGF-A in supporting the formation of new blood vessels, favoring the shift from radial to vertical tumor growth. Therefore, S100A13 may represent a new angiogenic and prognostic marker in melanoma.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi are very widespread, forming symbiotic associations with ∼80% of land plant species, including almost all crop plants. These fungi are considered of great interest for their use as biofertilizer in low-input and organic agriculture. In addition to an improvement in plant nutrition, AM fungi have been reported to enhance plant tolerance to important abiotic and biotic environmental conditions, especially to a reduced availability of resources. These features, to be exploited and applied in the field, require a thorough identification of mechanisms involved in nutrient transfer, metabolic pathways induced by single and multiple stresses, physiological and eco-physiological mechanisms resulting in improved tolerance. However, cooperation between host plants and AM fungi is often related to the specificity of symbiotic partners, the environmental conditions and the availability of resources. In this study, the impact of two AM fungal species (Funneliformis mosseae and Rhizophagus intraradices) on the water stress tolerance of a commercial tomato cultivar (San Marzano nano) has been evaluated in pots. Biometric and eco-physiological parameters have been recorded and gene expression analyses in tomato roots have been focused on plant and fungal genes involved in inorganic phosphate (Pi) uptake and transport. R. intraradices, which resulted to be more efficient than F. mosseae to improve physiological performances, was selected to assess the role of AM symbiosis on tomato plants subjected to combined stresses (moderate water stress and aphid infestation) in controlled conditions. A positive effect on the tomato indirect defense toward aphids in terms of enhanced attraction of their natural enemies was observed, in agreement with the characterization of volatile organic compound (VOC) released. In conclusion, our results offer new insights for understanding the molecular and physiological mechanisms involved in the tolerance toward water deficit as mediated by a specific AM fungus. Moreover, they open new perspectives for the exploitation of AM symbiosis to enhance crop tolerance to abiotic and biotic stresses in a scenario of global change.

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Thrombin, a key mediator of blood coagulation, exerts a large number of cellular actions via activation of a specific G-protein-coupled receptor, named protease-activated receptor 1 (PAR1). Several studies in experimental animals have demonstrated a therapeutic potential of small molecules with PAR1 antagonistic properties for treatment of diseases such as vascular thrombosis and arterial restenosis. We have studied the biological actions of one highly potent, selective PAR1 antagonist, SCH79797 (in vitro , and found that this compound was able to interfere with the growth of several human and mouse cell lines, in a concentration-dependent manner. The ED 50 for growth inhibition was 75 nM, 81 nM and 116 nM for NIH 3T3, HEK 293 and A375 cells, respectively. Moreover, in NIH 3T3 cells, SCH79797 inhibited serum-stimulated activation of p44/p42 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) at low concentrations and induced apoptosis at higher concentrations. However, the antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects of SCH79797 are likely not mediated by PAR1 antagonism, as they were also observed in embryonic fibroblasts derived from PAR1 null mice. These data suggest that, in view of the development of PAR1-selective antagonists as therapeutic agents, effects potentially unrelated to PAR1 inhibition should be carefully scrutinized.Thrombin, a trypsin-like serine protease, is the most potent agonist for platelet aggregation and plays a central role in haemostatic processes [1]. Thrombin catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by cleaving the peptide bond between an arginine and a glycine residue in the fibrinogen sequence [2]; it is also responsible for proteolytic activation of factors V, VIII, XI, XIII and protein C [1]. However, in addition to its role in blood coagulation, thrombin also stimulates mitogenic events in several cell types including fibroblasts, smooth muscle cells and astrocytes [3], therefore playing a central role in tissue repair, fibrosis, inflammation, neurodegeneration, atherosclerosis and restenosis [4][5][6][7].All cellular actions of α -thrombin are mediated by specific G-protein-coupled receptors, named protease-activated receptors (PAR). Activation of PARs by thrombin and other trypsin-like serine proteases is based on a novel mechanism: the protease cleaves part of the N-terminal domain of the receptor, releasing a 'tethered ligand' that subsequently binds to an extracellular loop of the receptor and activates the G-protein-coupled signal transduction [8]. Four PARs have now been cloned [9]; in humans, PAR1 is considered the primary α -thrombin receptor, although thrombin can also activate PAR3 and PAR4 [10]. Thrombin cleaves PAR1 between Arg 41 and Ser 42 , unmasking the N-terminal recognition motif 'SFLLRN' [11].Several small molecules capable of blocking the α -thrombin active site have been characterized over the years as antithrombotic agents, starting with hirudin, a natural leech-derived peptide [12]. However, the identification of the many biological actions of α -t...