Summary The release of membrane vesicles from the surface of cells into their surrounding environment is now recognized as an important pathway for the delivery of proteins to extracellular sites of biological function. Membrane vesicles of this kind, termed exosomes and ectosomes, are the result of active processes and have been shown to carry a wide array of biological effector molecules that can play roles in cell-to-cell communication and remodeling of the extracellular space [1–7]. Degradation of the extracellular matrix (ECM) through the regulated release of proteolytic enzymes is a key process for development, morphogenesis and cell migration in animal and plant cells. Here we show that the unicellular alga, Chlamydomonas, achieves the timely degradation of its mother cell wall, a type of ECM, through the budding of ectosomes directly from the membranes of their flagella. Using a combination of immunoelectron microscopy, immunofluorescence microscopy, and functional analysis, we demonstrate that these vesicles, which we term ciliary ectosomes, act as carriers of the proteolytic enzyme necessary for the liberation of daughter cells following mitosis [8, 9]. Chlamydomonas has proven to be the key unicellular model for the highly conserved mechanisms of mammalian cilia, and our results suggest that cilia may be an under-appreciated source of bioactive, extracellular membrane vesicles.

The cilium is the site of function for a variety of membrane receptors, enzymes and signal transduction modules critical to a spectrum of cellular processes. Through targeted transport and selective gating mechanisms, the cell localizes specific proteins to the cilium that equip it for the role of sensory antenna. This capacity of the cilium to serve as a specialized compartment where specific proteins can be readily concentrated for sensory reception also makes it an ideal organelle to employ for the regulated emission of specific biological material and information. In this review, we present and discuss an emerging body of evidence centered on ciliary ectosomes - bioactive vesicles released from the surface of the cilium.

Intraflagellar transport (IFT) proteins are well established as conserved mediators of flagellum/cilium assembly and disassembly. However, data has begun to accumulate in support of IFT protein involvement in other processes elsewhere in the cell. Here, we used synchronous cultures of Chlamydomonas to investigate the temporal patterns of accumulation and localization of IFT proteins during the cell cycle. Their mRNAs showed periodic expression that peaked during S and M phase (S/M). Unlike most proteins that are synthesized continuously during G1 phase, IFT27 and IFT46 levels were found to increase only during S/M phase. During cell division, IFT27, IFT46, IFT72, and IFT139 re-localized from the flagella and basal bodies to the cleavage furrow. IFT27 was further shown to be associated with membrane vesicles in this region. This localization pattern suggests a role for IFT in cell division.

Summary The cilium is a specialized extension of the cell where many specific proteins are admitted and retained, while many others are excluded or expelled. In order to maintain the organelle, the cell must possess mechanisms for the selective gating of protein entry, as well as for the targeted transport of proteins to the cilium from their sites of synthesis within the cell. We hypothesized that the cell employs cytoplasmic vesicles as vehicles not only for the transport of proteins destined for the ciliary membrane, but also for the transport of axonemal proteins to the cilium by means of peripheral association with vesicles. To test this hypothesis we employed two different experimental strategies: 1. the isolation and biochemical characterization of cytoplasmic vesicles that carry ciliary proteins; and 2. the in situ localization of ciliary proteins on cytoplasmic vesicle surfaces using gold labeling and electron microscopy. Our findings indicate that structural proteins destined for the ciliary axoneme are attached to the outer surfaces of cytoplasmic vesicles that carry integral ciliary membrane proteins during the process of ciliary growth.