Broncholithiasis refers to the presence of calcified material that erodes into the lumen of the tracheobronchial tree or lung parenchyma, potentially causing inflammation and obstruction (1). Consequences from broncholithiasis range widely from being asymptomatic to life threatening such as recurrent pneumonias, hemoptysis, and bronchoesophageal fistula. Management varies depending upon several factors including patient symptoms, associated lung disease, and mobility of the broncholith within the airway, but typically involves either observation or intervention via bronchoscopy or thoracic surgery. This paper reviews the etiology, clinical presentation, radiologic appearance, and management of broncholithiasis. Definition and etiology The term broncholithiasis is the condition that arises when a broncholith causes airway irritation, obstruction, or erosion into adjacent structures (2). The vast majority of broncholiths are formed by the partial or complete erosion
IPCs represent a potential treatment for refractory HH and should be used with caution in patients eligible for liver transplantation. Ideally, IPC use for these patients would be evaluated by a multidisciplinary team. IPC use may lead to small decreases in BMI and serum albumin levels in patients over time.
Patients with unresectable lung cancer range from those with early-stage or pre-invasive disease with comorbidities that preclude surgery to those with advanced stage disease in whom surgery is contraindicated. In such cases, a multidisciplinary approach to treatment is warranted, and may involve medical specialties including medical oncology, radiation oncology and interventional pulmonology. In this article we review bronchoscopic approaches to surgically unresectable lung cancer, including photodynamic therapy, brachytherapy, endoscopic ablation techniques and airway stenting. Current and past literature is reviewed to provide an overview of the topic, including a highlight of potential emerging approaches.
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