Epidemiological data from Europe, North America, Australia, and New Zealand indicate that a substantial proportion of foodborne disease is attributable to improper food preparation practices in consumers' homes. International concern about consumer food safety has prompted considerable research to evaluate domestic food-handling practices. The majority of consumer food safety studies in the last decade have been conducted in the United Kingdom and Northern Ireland (48%) and in the United States (42%). Surveys (questionnaires and interviews), the most frequent means of data collection, were used in 75% of the reviewed studies. Focus groups and observational studies have also been used. One consumer food safety study examined the relationship between pathogenic microbial contamination from raw chicken and observed food-handling behaviors, and the results of this study indicated extensive Campylobacter cross-contamination during food preparation sessions. Limited information about consumers' attitudes and intentions with regard to safe food-handling behaviors has been obtained, although a substantial amount of information about consumer knowledge and self-reported practices is available. Observation studies suggest that substantial numbers of consumers frequently implement unsafe food-handling practices. Knowledge, attitudes, intentions, and self-reported practices did not correspond to observed behaviors, suggesting that observational studies provide a more realistic indication of the food hygiene actions actually used in domestic food preparation. An improvement in consumer food-handling behavior is likely to reduce the risk and incidence of foodborne disease. The need for the development and implementation of food safety education strategies to improve specific food safety behaviors is reviewed in this paper.

Despite an increase in the number of food handlers receiving food hygiene training, a high proportion of food poisoning outbreaks still occur as a result of poor food handling practices. This paper uses elements of social cognitive theory to examine the beliefs of food handlers towards food safety and to determine food handlers' self-reported practices. Questionnaires were completed by 137 food handlers from 52 small to medium-sized food businesses in Wales. Generally, food handlers were aware of the food safety actions they should be carrying out but identified a number of barriers which would prevent them from implementing these practices. These barriers included lack of time, lack of staff and a lack of resources. Despite 95% of respondents receiving food hygiene training, 63% admitted to sometimes not carrying out food safety behaviours. All the food handlers also perceived their business to be of relatively low risk and yet all businesses prepared high risk foods. This research highlights the need for training to be based around a risk-based approach and demonstrates that behavioural change will not occur merely as a result of training. Food safety practices will only be implemented given adequate resources and an appropriate management culture.

No abstract

Observations of food handlers’ practices have many uses. Describes the use of a notational analysis technique to monitor and analyse specific food safety actions of caterers. A total of 115 food handlers from 29 catering businesses were observed carrying out 31,050 food preparation and hygiene actions in their workplace. Notational analysis was found to offer little advantage, compared to traditional observation methods. However, this technique did allow tracking of sequential events and was successful in identifying and recording a greater number of cross‐contamination events than would have been highlighted using traditional approaches. The results demonstrated that, based on hygiene guidelines, food handlers were required to implement de‐contamination actions on a large number of occasions. These de‐contamination actions were frequently inadequately conducted. To improve standards of food hygiene in catering there is a need to minimise the requirements for de‐contamination activities thereby reducing the potential for cross‐contamination.

A mail survey was designed and distributed to 1,650 managers of food businesses across the manufacturing, retail, and catering sectors of the United Kingdom food industry. Respondents were asked about the food hygiene practices of their business, their use of systems such as hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP), and their attitudes toward a range of food hygiene-related issues. Complete responses were received from 254 businesses, a response rate of 15.3%. The results showed that 69% of manufacturers were using HACCP systems, significantly more than the 13% and 15% in the retail and catering sectors, respectively (P < 0.05); 53% of manufacturing, 59% of retail, and 48% of catering managers thought that their business represented a low risk to food safety. Among businesses using HACCP, specific training in the system was significantly related to the likelihood that businesses had adopted all seven of the HACCP principles (P < 0.05). Business size was a significant factor in the use of HACCP in both the manufacturing and retail sectors. Higher levels of food hygiene qualifications among business managers, business status, and higher perceptions among managers of the risk to food safety of the business were also significantly related to HACCP use in all sectors (P < 0.05). The results from this survey have implications for the future development of HACCP, particularly within the UK retail and catering sectors. Risk communication and training are highlighted as areas of concern for marketing HACCP within these industry sectors.

The main aim of this study was to determine the factors which influence caterers' hand hygiene practices using social cognitive theory. One hundred and fifteen food handlers from 29 catering businesses were observed carrying out 31,050 food preparation actions in their workplace. Caterers subsequently completed the Hand Hygiene Instrument (HHI), which ascertained attitudes towards hand hygiene using constructs from the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the Health Belief Model. The TPB provided a useful framework for understanding caterers' implementation of hand hygiene practices, explaining 34% of the variance in hand hygiene malpractices (p < 0.05). Five components were identified as significant predictors of hand hygiene malpractices: attitudes, subjective norms, descriptive norms, perceived behavioural control and intention (p < 0.05). Thus, suggesting that hand hygiene practices cannot be improved solely through the provision of information to individuals. Effective interventions may need to focus on changing the organisational food safety culture.

The use of an observational approach in conjunction with isolation techniques for campylobacter and salmonella detection has facilitated a detailed evaluation of the risk of cross contamination during food preparation. Identification of suspected exposure routes has linked naturally contaminated raw foods with important food‐handling malpractices, contaminated contact surfaces and ready‐to‐eat foods. In a model domestic kitchen, 29 per cent of food preparation sessions resulted in positive campylobacter isolations from prepared salads, cleaning materials and food‐contact surfaces. Typing results showed that specific campylobacter strains isolated from prepared chicken salads were the same as the strains isolated from the raw chicken pieces, indicating microbial transfer during food preparation. Data obtained from this study can be used for exposure assessment, risk management and in the development of consumer risk communication strategies.

Worldwide incidence of food‐borne disease has increased in recent years and data suggest that inadequate food‐handling behaviour in the domestic environment may be an important factor. As a consequence of this, research into aspects of consumer food safety has been undertaken, especially in the UK and USA. The overall aims of conducting such research have been to investigate aspects of consumer food safety behaviour and to utilize information in the development of effective food safety education initiatives. In the past 25 years, 87 consumer food safety studies have been undertaken using different research methodologies; 75% utilized survey techniques (questionnaires and interviews), 17% were based on direct observation, and 8% utilized focus groups. The advantages and disadvantages of the different research methods used are discussed. Similarly, different forms of reliability and validity have been considered in the context of each research method used. A comparison of results from consumer food safety studies has shown that use of different research designs and approaches has resulted in differences in the findings about consumer food safety behaviour. Survey responses have provided a more optimistic portrayal of consumer food safety behaviour than data obtained from focus groups and direct observation. Although consumers have demonstrated knowledge, positive attitudes and intentions to implement safe practices, substantially larger proportions of consumers have been observed to implement frequent malpractices. This suggests that observational data provide the most reliable information denoting consumers’ actual food safety behaviour and should be used preferentially with risk‐based data for the design of communication strategies.