Pseudorabies virus (PRV; suid herpesvirus 1) infection causes heavy economic losses in the pig industry. Therefore, vaccination with live attenuated viruses is practiced in many countries. This vaccination was demonstrated to induce extrathymic virus-specific memory CD4+CD8+ T lymphocytes. Due to their major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II-restricted proliferation, it is generally believed that these T lymphocytes function as memory T-helper cells. To directly prove this hypothesis, 15-amino-acid, overlapping peptides of the viral glycoprotein gC were used for screening in proliferation assays with peripheral blood mononuclear cells of vaccinated d/d haplotype inbred pigs. In these experiments, two naturally processed T-cell epitopes (T1 and T2) which are MHC class II restricted were identified. It was shown that extrathymic CD4+CD8+ T cells are the T-lymphocyte subpopulation that responds to epitope T2. In addition, we were able to show that cytokine secretion can be induced in these T cells through recall with inactivated PRV and demonstrated that activated PRV-primed CD4+CD8+ T cells are able to induce PRV-specific immunoglobulin synthesis by PRV-primed, resting B cells. Taken together, these results demonstrate that the glycoprotein gC takes part in the priming of humoral anti-PRV memory responses. The experiments identified the first T-cell epitopes so far known to induce the generation of virus-specific CD4+CD8+ memory T lymphocytes and showed that CD4+CD8+ T cells are memory T-helper cells. Therefore, this study describes the generation of virus-specific CD4+CD8+ T cells, which is observed during vaccination, as a part of the potent humoral anti-PRV memory response induced by the vaccine.

In addition to the introduction of an evidence-based diagnosis and treatment pathway, it should be considered to optimize the flow of information between general practitioners and gastroenterological specialists. Last but not least, it would be desirable if more training courses for general practitioners could be offered in this subject area.

To reach the 2030 HCV-elimination target of the WHO, national and international recommendations to screen refugees/migrants from HCV high-prevalence countries for HCV should be emphasized. The chronically infected should be treated in accordance with HCV-guidelines. National, easily accessible information on HCV high-prevalence countries is required by attending physicians.

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