As is the case for terrestrial organisms, carotenoids represent the most common group of pigments in marine environments. They are generally biosynthesized by all autotrophic marine organisms, such as bacteria and archaea, algae and fungi. Some heterotrophic organisms also contain carotenoids probably accumulated from food or partly modified through metabolic reactions. These natural pigments are divided into two chemical classes: carotenes (such as lycopene and α- and β-carotene) that are composed of hydrogen and carbon; xanthophylls (such as astaxanthin, fucoxanthin and lutein), which are constituted by hydrogen, carbon and oxygen. Carotenoids, as antioxidant compounds, assume a key role in the protection of cells. In fact, quenching of singlet oxygen, light capture and photosynthesis protection are the most relevant biological functions of carotenoids. The present review aims at describing (i) the biological functions of carotenoids and their benefits for human health, (ii) the most common carotenoids from marine organisms and (iii) carotenoids having large success in pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmeceutical industries, highlighting the scientific progress in marine species cultivation for natural pigments production.

Epidemiological studies are providing strong evidence on beneficial health effects from dietary measures, leading scientists to actively investigate which foods and which specific agents in the diet can prevent diseases. Public health officers and medical experts should collaborate toward the design of disease prevention diets for nutritional intervention. Functional foods are emerging as an instrument for dietary intervention in disease prevention. Functional food products are technologically developed ingredients with specific health benefits. Among promising sources of functional foods and chemopreventive diets of interest, microalgae are gaining worldwide attention, based on their richness in high-value products, including carotenoids, proteins, vitamins, essential amino acids, omega-rich oils and, in general, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds. Beneficial effects of microalgae on human health and/or wellness could in the future be useful in preventing or delaying the onset of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. During the past decades, microalgal biomass was predominately used in the health food market, with more than 75% of the annual microalgal biomass production being employed for the manufacture of powders, tablets, capsules or pastilles. In this review, we report and discuss the present and future role of microalgae as marine sources of functional foods/beverages for human wellbeing, focusing on perspectives in chemoprevention. We dissected this topic by analyzing the different classes of microalgal compounds with health outputs (based on their potential chemoprevention activities), the biodiversity of microalgal species and how to improve their cultivation, exploring the perspective of sustainable food from the sea.

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid with powerful antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity produced by several freshwater and marine microorganisms, including bacteria, yeast, fungi, and microalgae. Due to its deep red-orange color it confers a reddish hue to the flesh of salmon, shrimps, lobsters, and crayfish that feed on astaxanthin-producing organisms, which helps protect their immune system and increase their fertility. From the nutritional point of view, astaxanthin is considered one of the strongest antioxidants in nature, due to its high scavenging potential of free radicals in the human body. Recently, astaxanthin is also receiving attention for its effect on the prevention or co-treatment of neurological pathologies, including Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases. In this review, we focus on the neuroprotective properties of astaxanthin and explore the underlying mechanisms to counteract neurological diseases, mainly based on its capability to cross the blood-brain barrier and its oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties.

Green microalgae contain many active pigments such as carotenoids having antioxidant and protective activity on human cells. Here we investigate the biological activity of an ethanol/water extract of the marine green microalga Tetraselmis suecica containing high levels of carotenoids such as the xanthophylls lutein, violaxanthin, neoxanthin, antheraxanthin and loroxanthin esters. This extract has a strong antioxidant and repairing activity in the human lung cancer cell line (A549) as shown by the increased expression of dehydrocholesterol reductase-24 (DHCR24) and prostaglandin reductase 1 (PTGR1) genes and proteins. The extract also reduces prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels in cells damaged by H2O2 and has tissue repairing effects on reconstructed human epidermal tissue cells (EpiDermTM) indicating a potential cosmeceutical activity of this microalgal species.

Little is known on the antioxidant activity modulation in microalgae, even less in diatoms. Antioxidant molecule concentrations and their modulation in microalgae has received little attention and the interconnection between light, photosynthesis, photoprotection, and antioxidant network in microalgae is still unclear. To fill this gap, we selected light as external forcing to drive physiological regulation and acclimation in the costal diatom Skeletonema marinoi. We investigated the role of light regime on the concentration of ascorbic acid, phenolic compounds and among them flavonoids and their connection with photoprotective mechanisms. We compared three high light conditions, differing in either light intensity or wave distribution, with two low light conditions, differing in photoperiod, and a prolonged darkness. The change in light distribution, from sinusoidal to square wave distribution was also investigated. Results revealed a strong link between photoprotection, mainly relied on xanthophyll cycle operation, and the antioxidant molecules and activity modulation. This study paves the way for further investigation on the antioxidant capacity of diatoms, which resulted to be strongly forced by light conditions, also in the view of their potential utilization in nutraceuticals or new functional cosmetic products.

In order to exploit the rich reservoir of marine cold-adapted bacteria as a source of bioactive metabolites, ethyl acetate crude extracts of thirteen polar marine bacteria were tested for their antiproliferative activity on A549 lung epithelial cancer cells. The crude extract from Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAC125 was the most active in inhibiting cell proliferation. Extensive bioassay-guided purification and mass spectrometric characterization allowed the identification of 4-hydroxybenzoic acid (4-HBA) as the molecule responsible for this bioactivity. We further demonstrate that 4-HBA inhibits A549 cancer cell proliferation with an IC 50 value ≤ 1 μg ml −1 , and that the effect is specific, since the other two HBA isomers (i.e. 2-HBA and 3-HBA) were unable to inhibit cell proliferation. The effect of 4-HBA is also selective since treatment of normal lung epithelial cells (WI-38) with 4-HBA did not affect cell viability. Finally, we show that 4-HBA is able to activate, at the gene and protein levels, a specific cell death signaling pathway named pyroptosis. Accordingly, the treatment of A549 cells with 4-HBA induces the transcription of (amongst others) caspase-1, IL1β, and IL18 encoding genes. Studies needed for the elucidation of mode of action of 4-HBA will be instrumental in depicting novel details of pyroptosis.Lung cancer is an extremely important health concern that affects millions of people worldwide 1,2 , and any progress leading to improvement of cancer survival rates is a global priority. Patients with lung cancer generally have a poor prognosis with a 5-year survival 2 . Traditional cancer chemotherapy has mainly been based on the use of highly cytotoxic drugs that non-specifically target all dividing cells and may therefore only result in a modest improvement in patients that become immunosuppressed as chemotherapeutics kill all proliferating cells including monocytes and lymphocytes. For this reason, a new trend in anticancer research has arisen focusing on the discovery of new natural drugs that induce specific programmed cell death mediated by immunogenic signals. A recently discovered form of immunogenic cell death is represented by pyroptosis. This pathway differs from that of apoptosis as it is uniquely mediated by caspase-1 (CASP1) activation, which in turn triggers the formation of an "inflammasome", a cytosolic complex with inflammatory features 3 linked to interleukin 1β (IL1β) release for immune cell recruitment.

Cyanobacteria are a diversified phylum of nitrogen-fixing, photo-oxygenic bacteria able to colonize a wide array of environments. In addition to their fundamental role as diazotrophs, they produce a plethora of bioactive molecules, often as secondary metabolites, exhibiting various biological and ecological functions to be further investigated. Among all the identified species, cyanobacteria are capable to embrace symbiotic relationships in marine environments with organisms such as protozoans, macroalgae, seagrasses, and sponges, up to ascidians and other invertebrates. These symbioses have been demonstrated to dramatically change the cyanobacteria physiology, inducing the production of usually unexpressed bioactive molecules. Indeed, metabolic changes in cyanobacteria engaged in a symbiotic relationship are triggered by an exchange of infochemicals and activate silenced pathways. Drug discovery studies demonstrated that those molecules have interesting biotechnological perspectives. In this review, we explore the cyanobacterial symbioses in marine environments, considering them not only as diazotrophs but taking into consideration exchanges of infochemicals as well and emphasizing both the chemical ecology of relationship and the candidate biotechnological value for pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications.

Marine dinoflagellates are a valuable source of bioactive molecules. Many species produce cytotoxic compounds and some of these compounds have also been investigated for their anticancer potential. Here, we report the first investigation of the toxic dinoflagellate Alexandrium minutum as source of water-soluble compounds with antiproliferative activity against human lung cancer cells. A multi-step enrichment of the phenol–water extract yielded a bioactive fraction with specific antiproliferative effect (IC50 = 0.4 µg·mL−1) against the human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549 cell line). Preliminary characterization of this material suggested the presence of glycoprotein with molecular weight above 20 kDa. Interestingly, this fraction did not exhibit any cytotoxicity against human normal lung fibroblasts (WI38). Differential gene expression analysis in A549 cancer cells suggested that the active fraction induces specific cell death, triggered by mitochondrial autophagy (mitophagy). In agreement with the cell viability results, gene expression data also showed that no mitophagic event was activated in normal cells WI38.