Depressive problems and academic performance, social well-being, and social problems in adolescents are strongly associated. However, longitudinal and bidirectional relations between the two remain unclear, as well as the role of gender. Consequently, this study focuses on the relation between depressive problems and three types of functioning in adolescents while testing gender differences. Depressive problems and functioning of 2,230 children were measured with structured questionnaires. The measurements took place biennially over 3 waves, from late childhood into adolescence (age range = 10-18 years). To examine the longitudinal relation between depression and functioning, path analyses with cross-lagged effects were conducted with structural equation modeling. Multigroup analyses were used to test for gender differences, which were only observed for academic performance. Other findings indicated substantial stability in depressive problems and functioning over time and within-wave correlations between depression and the 3 types of functioning. Poor social well-being was predicted by depressive problems but not the other way around. The relation between depressive and social problems was bidirectional, that is, they predicted each other. Finally, depressive problems and academic performance were bidirectionally related as well but only in girls.

Background: Although persons with subthreshold depression or anxiety are known to be at risk for full-syndromal disorders, little is known about their functioning over time. In this study, we investigate the functional impairment of persons with subthreshold depression or anxiety over time, compared to that of controls. Furthermore, we evaluate which illness, personal, and environmental risk factors influence its course. Methods: Data come from the Netherlands Study of Depression and Anxiety (N = 1,266, aged 18-65). Linear mixed models were used to identify predictors of functional impairment at baseline, 1-, and 2-year follow-up. Risk factors were evaluated in their overall effect on functioning and on change in functioning over time, and whether they differed for respondents with and without subthreshold depression or anxiety. Results: Functional impairment in subthreshold respondents improved over time, but remained much higher than in controls. Prior anxiety disorder, high neuroticism, low conscientiousness, more somatic conditions, and more childhood trauma all predicted greater functional impairment. Older age predicted lower functioning only in subthreshold respondents, while the effect of neuroticism was stronger in subthreshold respondents relative to controls. Conclusions: Functional impairment in subthreshold respondents improved over time, but remained elevated compared to that of controls. Given continuously elevated levels of impairment, preventive interventions should be focused on persons with subthreshold symptoms; in particular those with prior anxiety disorder, high neuroticism, low conscientiousness, somatic conditions, or childhood trauma. Depression and Anxiety 30:386-394, 2013.C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Psychopathology during adolescence has been associated with poor academic performance, low social well-being, and low social preference by peers at school. However, previous research has not accounted for comorbid psychopathology, informant-specific associations between psychopathology and functioning, and gender and age differences. This study addresses these limitations by examining adolescents' psychopathology and functioning at school, reported by child, parent, teacher, and peers during primary and secondary school in a large Dutch longitudinal cohort study (N = 2230). Teacher reports of psychopathology, especially regarding attention problems and withdrawn/depressed problems, followed by parent reports regarding hyperactivity, were most strongly associated with academic performance. The same held for social preference which was associated with teacher and parent ratings of withdrawn/depressed problems and hyperactivity. In contrast, social well-being was best predicted by child reports (at primary school) of affective problems. In girls, the association between ADHD problems and poor academic performance was stronger than in boys and conduct problems were more often associated with poor school functioning in general. These findings can help identify adolescents at risk for poor functioning and design interventions that effectively reduce or prevent poor school functioning.

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