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a b s t r a c tThis paper provides a perspective on the technologies capable of converting solar energy, CO 2 and H 2 O into an easy to use fuel. The paper addresses bio-based approaches, but mainly focuses on (i) the combination of photovoltaic (PV) devices and electrocatalysis, (ii) single unit operation by photocatalytic conversion, and (iii) solar thermal conversion. Each option is described in a general manner, including a brief evaluation of the advantages and disadvantages. Also suggestions for future research endeavours are given. Based on the used literature data, for electrocatalytic and photocatalytic technologies, dramatic improvements should be made in material optimization, as well as reactor design and operation. Large efficiency gains are necessary to enable use of these technologies in practice. Solar thermal conversion is more mature, and requires specific optimization in processing, as will be discussed.

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Ladle vessels continue to play a significant role in clean steelmaking. The incorporation of clean-steel practices imposes severe process environments requiring use of stiffer, stronger refractory linings. As a result, concern has been expressed over the structural integrity of the ladle shell because of the large expansion loads imposed by the stronger linings. Appropriate refractory material properties are required in order to develop accurate and dependable analytical prediction of lining behavior. Analytical results of lining expansion forces using ultrasonic elastic modulus and static elastic modulus (from static compressive stredstrain data) are compared to strain gage measured lining expansion forces