No abstract

Disease states which are abnormal conditions that negatively affects the structure or function of parts or all of an organism usually lead to moderate or extensive tissue damage depending on the time of onset and severity of the disease. Such tissue damages are usually associated with the release of enzymes (specific to the diseased organ or tissue) into circulation which results in an increase in activity of such enzymes in body fluids. The measurement of these changes in enzymatic activity is usually employed as an important clinical assessment tool for detecting, diagnosing, screening and monitoring diseases and pathological processes. Some of the enzymes used in diagnosis include transaminases (in liver diseases), creatine kinase (in myocardial infarction), amylase (in pancreatitis), acid phosphatase (in malignant diseases), and alkaline phosphatase (in bone diseases). Some other enzymes are used as diagnostic reagents in detecting the presence of compounds of clinical importance. These include glucose oxidase (for detecting the presence of glucose), urate oxidase (for testing the presence of uric acid) and cholesterol oxidase (for testing the presence of cholesterol) in diabetes, kidney stones and arteriosclerosis respectively. Various body fluids also contain proteins other than enzymes that are of diagnostic importance especially the plasma proteins. The plasma proteins are broadly divided into two namely; albumin and globulin. The globulins include gamma-globulins, beta-globulins, alpha-1 globulins and alpha-2 globulin. Many physiological and/or disease conditions produce changes in these individual plasma protein concentrations, and measurements of these changes can provide diagnostic information. Some of such enzymes and proteins of diagnostic importance are discussed in this review.

Background Despite the invasiveness of the Hepatitis B infection, its vaccines are only formulated with FDA-approved alum-based adjuvants, which poorly elicit a lasting immune response, hence the need for a more effective adjuvant system. This study evaluated the immunogenicity and toxicity of eggshell membranes (ESM) when administered as an adjuvant for the recombinant HBV vaccine (rHBsAg) in albino mice. Differential white blood cell analysis, as well as the titer measurement of Immunoglobulin G, subclass G1 and G2a on indirect ELISA, was performed to measure the immune-modulatory potentials of ESM. Moreover, analysis of the liver marker enzyme (AST and ALT) and body/liver weights was performed to ascertain the toxicity level of ESM. Finally, Immuno-informatic analysis was used to investigate the immune-modulatory potential of individual member proteins of ESM. Results Our results showed a significant improvement in the experimental group's lymphocyte count after boost-dose administration compared to the controls, whereas there was no significant change in the granulocyte population. Furthermore, the formulations (ESM-rHBsAg) significantly improved IgG and IgG1 titers after each successive immunization. Body/liver weight and liver function showed ESM non-toxic to mice. The immunoinformatic analysis discovered ovalbumin, lysozyme-C, and UFM-1 as the member proteins of ESM with immune-modulatory activities of activating antigen-presenting cells (APC). Conclusion This study has provided a clue into the potential valorization of eggshell membranes and their peptides as an adjuvant for vaccines such as HBV. We recommend more in-depth molecular analysis to support our findings as well as foster real-life application.