The psychological impact of ultrasound examination on expectant parents is assessed through direct observation, interviews and the administration of a questionnaire to a large group of parents. The examination was a positive and reassuring experience for most parents. Among a wide array of variables that could account for the effects of the exam, the results were the most important. Women viewing their first ultrasound, specially primiparae were more moved. The results did not confirm that there is a traumatic effect when viewing precedes quickening. Contrary to previous reports, fathers were as emotionally involved as the mothers. The presence of the father seemed also to have a beneficial effect on the mother. One-half of parents wanted to know the sex of the fetus before birth. These findings are discussed, along with implications for problems arising from introduction of new technologies during pregnancy.
Thirty mothers who experienced a perinatal death were offered crisis intervention aimed at facilitating their grief process at a few days, 3 weeks and 3 months after the loss. Evaluation of maternal grief reactions and their general psychological adjustment took place at these 3 early contacts and 1 to 2 years later. This last assessment included a semi-structured clinical interview and a number of self-rating scales (Life Events Schedule, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and a Mourning Scale). Six of the 30 mothers showed inappropriate grief reactions at the 3 week and 3 month assessment. By the long term follow up only 1 of these 6 displayed depression or other psychiatric disorder. Three other women not identified as high risk candidates by the 3 month evaluation developed high BDI scores and clinical depressions at the 1 to 2 year assessment. Variables associated with abnormal grief and depression such as social support systems, communication between the parents, maternal dreams, and hospital practices were examined and discussed indicating possibilities for future research.
Thirty-seven offspring from 21 families with a manic-depressive parent were studied 3 to 7 years following initial evaluation. The study examined both pedigree information and psychosocial variables including parental, marital and overall adjustment, measures of chronicity and severity of parental illness and family assessment measures in relationship to offspring functioning. Nine of the 37 offspring (24%) received a positive DSM-III diagnosis, which is a similar percentage of positive diagnosis of children as we found previously. The diagnoses clustered in the affective illness spectrum. When the presence of affective traits was considered, there was evidence for continuity of psychopathology in most cases. Associations between offspring psychopathology and both non-specific and specific parental risk factors are discussed.
Thirty-nine children from intact families with a manic-depressive parent were evaluated by a semi-structured clinical interview and a number of rating scales for the presence or absence of psychopathology. This sample represents a larger one than in an earlier study, which showed minimal offspring psychopathology compared with reports of other investigators. The current study also examines the inter-relationships between the presence or absence of offspring psychopathology with both genetic loading and a number of psychosocial variables including measures of parental marital adjustment, severity and chronicity of proband parent illness and early exposure of children to parental illness. Nine of the thirty-nine children, (23%) received a positive DSM-III diagnosis, with depression of the dysthymic type being the most common. There was no significant correlation between genetic loading and offspring psychopathology. However, there were significant associations between children with psychopathology and paternal marital dissatisfaction and the age and chronicity of illness of the proband parent as compared with the children with no psychopathology.
Teachers evaluated 155 4-5-year-old children attending Montréal day-care centers of excellent (N = 51), average (N = 60), or low (N = 44) quality using behavioral scales. Age of entry to day-care was also considered. Center quality was assessed by two observers using the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale. Results point to the positive effects of longer exposure to high-quality group day-care (increased interest-participation), and the negative effects of longer exposure to low-quality centers (increased anger-defiance). Positive or negative family characteristics contributed further to these effects.
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