In 8 studies, the authors investigated negative self-thinking as a mental habit. Mental content (negative self-thoughts) was distinguished from mental process (negative self-thinking habit). The negative self-thinking habit was assessed with a metacognitive instrument (Habit Index of Negative Thinking; HINT) measuring whether negative self-thoughts occur often, are unintended, are initiated without awareness, are difficult to control, and are self-descriptive. Controlling for negative cognitive content, the authors found that negative self-thinking habit was distinct from rumination and mindfulness, predicted explicit as well as implicit low self-esteem (name letter effect), attenuated a positivity bias in the processing of self-relevant stimuli, and predicted anxiety and depressive symptoms 9 months later. The results support the assumption that metacognitive reflection on negative self-thinking as mental habit may play an important role in self-evaluative processes.

One thousand and thirty-seven psychiatric patients and non-patients from six different sites completed the 205-item Young Schema Questionnaire or its shortended form, the 75-item Young Schema Questionnaire-S. Among 888 of the subjects, who all were patients, a confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) of the 75 items included in both forms of the questionnaire clearly yielded the 15 Early Maladaptive Schema (EMS) factors rationally developed by J. E. Young (1990). Confirmatory factor analyses, testing three models of the higher-order structure of the 15 EMSs, indicated that a fourfactor model was the best alternative. The results slightly favored a correlated four second-order factor model over one also including a third-order global factor. The four factors or schema domains were Disconnection, Impaired Autonomy, Exaggerated Standards, and Impaired Limits. Scales derived from the four higher-order factors had good internal and test-retest reliabilities and were related to DSM-IV Cluster C personality traits, agoraphobic avoidance behavior, and depressive symptoms.

*Early maladaptive schemas, high harm [correction made here after initial online publication] avoidance and low self-directedness may be a part of vulnerability to depression. *The finding of these personality characteristics in subjects recovered from depression indicates malfunctioning to some degree. *Addressing such characteristics in therapy should be considered in order to prevent and treat depression from its relapsing and recurring course.

The Dysfunctional Attitude Scale (DAS) and the Young Schema Questionnaire (YSQ) have been suggested as vulnerability markers for depression and entrenched psychological disorders, respectively. One-hundredand-fifteen clinically depressed (CDs), previously depressed (PDs), and never depressed individuals completed the DAS, the YSQ, and the Beck Depression Inventory in the index study, and were followed up 9 years later in relation to diagnostic status, depression severity and course of depression. From multiple regression analyses YSQ domain scales emerged as significant predictors of concurrent depression severity in the index study, and depression severity and episodes of Major Depression, 9 years later. A majority of CDs and PDs experienced a recurrent depression over 9 years. The findings indicate that YSQ scales are promising as vulnerability markers for depression and underscore a conceptualisation of depression as a serious disorder due to its highly recurrent course, and highlight the necessity to identify and tackle long-term vulnerability factors.

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Theoretical models of cognitive mechanisms assumed to be involved in recurrent depression are discussed and a cognitive battle process between compensatory coping strategies and the automatic processing of negative information is suggested. Preliminary support for the model comes from a study that investigated preferences for positive and negative tape-recorded self-statements in clinically depressed (CD), previously depressed (PD) and never depressed (ND) individuals. The results showed (1) a positive correlation between dysfunctional attitudes and dysphoric symptoms in CDs and PDs, but not in NDs; (2) NDs preferred positive self-statements, whereas CDs preferred neither positive nor negative self-statements; (3) PDs exhibited different patterns of preference depending on the levels of dysfunctional attitudes and dysphoric symptoms. For example, simultaneous high levels of both dysfunctional attitudes and dysphoric symptoms in PDs resulted in a preference for positive self-statements. This finding is discussed as a possible compensatory strategy of avoiding negative information in PDs. Clinical implications for treatment and prevention of depression are discussed.

We examined clinically depressed (CD; n = 16), previously depressed (PD; n = 19) and never depressed (ND; n = 18) individuals on 13 theoretically selected Rorschach (Exner, 1993; Rorschach, 1942) variables and on the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979). The group assignment was made according to the criteria of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association, 1994). We tested 2 contradictory models for depressive vulnerability, Beck's (Clark & Beck, 1999) and Miranda and Persons's (1988; Persons & Miranda, 1992), in a planned comparison design with focused contrasts. The CDs significantly contrasted the combined group of NDs and the PDs in a pathological direction on 8 of the 13 Rorschach variables and on the BDI. However, the combined group of CDs and PDs also significantly contrasted the NDs in a pathological direction on 3 of these Rorschach variables and on the BDI. In addition, logistic regression analyses indicated that Rorschach indexes significantly improved the prediction of major depression above and beyond that achieved by the BDI. The findings show that the Rorschach method was able to identify (a) cognitive and aggressive disturbances that are present in individuals who are actively depressed but not in individuals who have been depressed in the past or never been depressed and (b) affective and coping disturbances that are present in depressed individuals and to some degree in PD individuals but not in individuals who have not experienced depression. We discuss the scanty evidence of psychological disturbances in PD individuals, as measured with the Rorschach, in relation to the mood-state dependent hypothesis of Miranda and Persons (1988; Persons & Miranda, 1992).