The effects from multigenerational exposures to engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) in their pristine and transformed states are currently unknown despite such exposures being an increasingly common scenario in natural environments. Here, we examine how exposure over 10 generations affects the sensitivity of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans to pristine and sulfidized Ag ENPs and AgNO 3 . We also include populations that were initially exposed over six generations but kept unexposed for subsequent four generations to allow recovery from exposure. Toxicity of the different silver forms decreased in the order AgNO 3 , Ag ENPs and Ag 2 S ENPs. Continuous exposure to Ag ENPs and AgNO 3 caused pronounced sensitization (approx. 10-fold) in the F2 generation, which was sustained until F10. This sensitization was less pronounced for Ag 2 S ENP exposures, indicating different toxicity mechanisms. Subtle changes in size and lifespan were also measured. In the recovery populations, the sensitivity to Ag ENPs and AgNO 3 resulting from the initial multigenerational exposure persisted. Their response sensitivity for all endpoints was most closely related to the last ancestral exposed generation (F5), rather than unexposed controls. The mechanisms of transgenerational transfer of sensitivity are probably organized through the epigenome, and we encourage others to investigate such effects as a priority for mechanistic toxicology.
Initiatives to support the sustainable development of the nanotechnology sector have led to rapid growth in research on the environmental fate, hazards and risk of engineered nanoparticles (ENP). As the field has matured over the last 10 years, a detailed picture of the best methods to track potential forms of exposure, their uptake routes and best methods to identify and track internal fate and distributions following assimilation into organisms has begun to emerge. Here we summarise the current state of the field, focussing particularly on metal and metal oxide ENPs. Studies to date have shown that ENPs undergo a range of physical and chemical transformations in the environment to the extent that exposures to pristine well dispersed materials will occur only rarely in nature. Methods to track assimilation and internal distributions must, therefore, be capable of detecting these modified forms. The uptake mechanisms involved in ENP assimilation may include a range of trans-cellular trafficking and distribution pathways, which can be followed by passage to intracellular compartments. To trace toxicokinetics and distributions, analytical and imaging approaches are available to determine rates, states and forms. When used hierarchically, these tools can map ENP distributions to specific target organs, cell types and organelles, such as endosomes, caveolae and lysosomes and assess speciation states. The first decade of ENP ecotoxicology research, thus, points to an emerging paradigm where exposure is to transformed materials transported into tissues and cells via passive and active pathways within which they can be assimilated and therein identified using a tiered analytical and imaging approach.
In the environment, nanomaterials (NMs) are subject to chemical transformations, such as redox reactions, dissolution, coating degradation, and organic matter, protein, and macromolecule binding, and physical transformations including homo or heteroagglomeration. The combination of these reactions can result in NMs with differing characteristics progressing through a functional fate pathway that leads to the formation of transformed NM functional fate groups with shared properties. To establish the nature of such effects of transformation on NMs, four main types of studies are conducted: 1) chemical aging for transformation of pristine NMs; 2) manipulation of test media to change NM surface properties; 3) aging of pristine NMs water, sediment, or soil; 4) NM aging in waste streams and natural environments. From these studies a paradigm of aging effects on NM uptake and toxicity can be developed. Transformation, especially speciation changes, largely results in reduced potency. Further reactions at the surface resulting in processes, such as ecocorona formation and heteroagglomeration may additionally reduce NM potency. When NMs of differing potency transform and enter environments, common transformation reaction occurring in receiving system may act to reduce the variation in hazard between different initial NMs leading to similar actual hazard under realistic exposure conditions.
To
better understand nanoplastic effects, the potential for surface
functionalization and dissolve organic matter eco-corona formation
to modify the mechanisms of action and toxicity of different nanoplastics
needs to be established. Here, we assess how different surface charges
modifying functionalization (postive (+ve) aminated; neutral unfunctionalized;
negative (−ve) carboxylated) altered the toxicity of 50 and
60 nm polystyrene nanoplastics to the nematode Caenorhabditis
elegans. The potency for effects on survival, growth,
and reproduction reduced in the order +ve aminated > neutral unfunctionalized
≫ −ve carboxylated with toxicity >60-fold higher
for
the +ve than −ve charged forms. Toxicokinetic–toxicodynamic
modeling (DEBtox) showed that the charge-related potency was primarily
linked to differences in effect thresholds and dose-associated damage
parameters, rather than to toxicokinetic parameters. This suggests
that surface functionalization may change the nature of nanoplastic
interactions with membrane and organelles leading to variations in
toxicity. Eco-corona formation reduced the toxicity of all nanoplastics
indicating that organic molecule associations may passivate surfaces.
Between particles, eco-corona interactions resulting in more equivalent
effects; however, even despite these changes, the order of potency
of the charged forms was retained. These results have important implications
for the development of future grouping approaches.
This study compared results of nanoparticle number concentration measurements collected from 74 instruments hosted across 50 laboratories, providing users with useful discussion and reference data to assess and benchmark their measurement capability.
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