Biochar is the product of pyrolysis produced from feedstock of biological origin. Due to its aromatic structure and long residence time, biochar may enable long-term carbon sequestration. At the same time, biochar has the potential to improve soil fertility and reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from soils. However, the effect of biochar application on GHG fluxes from soil must be investigated before recommendations for field-scale biochar application can be made. A laboratory experiment was designed to measure carbon dioxide (CO) and nitrous oxide (NO) emissions from two Irish soils with the addition of two different biochars, along with endogeic (soil-feeding) earthworms and ammonium sulfate, to assist in the overall evaluation of biochar as a GHG-mitigation tool. A significant reduction in NO emissions was observed from both low and high organic matter soils when biochars were applied at rates of 4% (w/w). Earthworms significantly increased NO fluxes in low and high organic matter soils more than 12.6-fold and 7.8-fold, respectively. The large increase in soil NO emissions in the presence of earthworms was significantly reduced by the addition of both biochars. biochar reduced the large earthworm emissions by 91 and 95% in the low organic matter soil and by 56 and 61% in the high organic matter soil (with and without N fertilization), respectively. With peanut hull biochar, the earthworm emissions reduction was 80 and 70% in the low organic matter soil, and only 20 and 10% in the high organic matter soil (with and without N fertilization), respectively. In high organic matter soil, both biochars reduced CO efflux in the absence of earthworms. However, soil CO efflux increased when peanut hull biochar was applied in the presence of earthworms. This study demonstrated that biochar can potentially reduce earthworm-enhanced soil NO and CO emissions. Hence, biochar application combined with endogeic earthworm activity did not reveal unknown risks for GHG emissions at the pot scale, but field-scale experiments are required to confirm this.

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A survey of Irish farmers was conducted to identify farmers' opinions on energy crop production and to characterize potential adopters of energy crop cultivation in Ireland. One hundred and seventy-two surveys were completed from 25 counties in Ireland. Miscanthus (48%) and grass (30%) were the preferred crops for adoption of energy crop production. Potential adopters described themselves as having a significantly greater level of knowledge of energy crop production compared with other respondents. The results indicate that lack of interest in adopting energy crop production may be due to lack of knowledge regarding the economic benefits of adoption and the variety of energy crops available for cultivation in Ireland. The establishment of long-term contracts and government schemes were identified as important requirements for the development of bioenergy crop production in Ireland. Energy crop adoption was not limited to farmers undertaking specific farm enterprises. Farmers were motivated to adopt energy crop production for both economic and environmental benefits. These results are the first to provide valuable information on the perspectives of potential adopters of bioenergy crop production in Ireland for the promotion and implementation of a national bioenergy industry. Policy requirements and outreach strategies to encourage adoption of energy crops by agricultural producers are suggested.

Background: Increasing world population, changing consumption patterns, and the agri-food industry ambition for expansion will drive an increase in outputs from future Irish agriculture. This must be achieved within the context of the targets established within E.U. environmental directives, such as the Nitrates (91/676/EEC) and Water Framework Directives (2000/60/EC). How and if sustainable intensification can be achieved is unclear, with climate change and competition for land (e.g. bioenergy crops) increasing pressures on agriculture and the environment. The Environmental Protection Agency's report, Ireland's Environment, investigated the status of water quality and concluded agricultural diffuse and small point sources of pollution were the main cause of 50 % and 13 % of river and groundwater pollution, respectively (EPA, 2012). As a result of significant investment in research, there is now an understanding of the factors controlling the impact of agriculture on water quality in Ireland. However, in facing the challenges of sustainable intensification, climate change, and increasing demand for delivery of ecosystem services from rural environments, there is a need to determine to what extent existing research can provide answers to these challenges and what further research is required to balance water quality protection and agricultural production in the future. Design: The objective of this systematic map protocol is to plan development of an evidence-base to inform recommendations for further research on mitigating the impact of agriculture on water quality in Ireland under future climate change and sustainable intensification. The primary question for this systematic map is: What evidence exists to link agricultural practices with ecological impacts in Irish waterbodies? This involves coding studies based on variables such as scale, methodology, chemical and ecological impacts, and location. Following an extensive search for relevant research documents, documents selected for inclusion in the systematic map will be implemented on a hierarchical basis, with documents first screened at title and abstract level and subsequently at full text level using predetermined selection criteria. Coding will include elements of critical appraisal (e.g. study length, study scale, and experimental design). A geographical map indicating where each study occurred will be linked to the database describing all studies included in the systematic map.

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