In agricultural production, it is important to determine where input usage saving can be implemented by taking energy use into consideration and to analyze the greenhouse gas emissions of agricultural activities. This study has been conducted to review orange (Citrus sinensis L.) production in terms of energy balance and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study was carried out during the 2015/2016 production season in Adana, a province in Turkey. Energy balance and GHG emissions have been defined by calculating the inputs and outputs of agricultural nature used in orange production. The findings of the study indicate that the distribution of energy inputs in orange production are 11,880 MJ ha−1 (34.10%) of electricity, 10,079.75 MJ ha−1 (28.93%) of chemical fertilizer energy, 7630 MJ ha−1 (21.90%) of chemical energy, 3052 MJ ha−1 (8.76%) of diesel fuel energy, 1348.91 MJ ha−1 (3.87%) of human labor energy, 378 MJ ha−1 (1.09%) of irrigation water energy, 351.22 MJ ha−1 (1.01%) of machinery energy and 118.80 MJ ha−1 (0.34%) of lime energy. In total, input energy (IE) in orange production has been calculated as 34,838.68 MJ ha−1 and the output energy (OE) has been calculated as 95,000 MJ ha−1. Energy use efficiency (EUE), specific energy (SE), energy productivity (EP) and net energy (NE) have been calculated as 2.73, 0.70 MJ kg−1, 1.44 kg MJ−1 and 60,161.32 MJ ha−1, respectively. The total energy input in the production of oranges was divided into: 47.82% direct, 52.18% indirect, 4.96% from renewable sources and 95.04% from non-renewable sources. The GHG emissions figure for orange production was 3794.26 kg CO2–eq ha−1, with electricity having the greatest share, 1983.96 (52.29%); the GHG ratio was 0.08 kg CO2–eq kg−1. According to the results, the production of orange was considered to be profitable in terms of EUE.
Water is crucial for agriculture and needs to be used effectively due to climate change and drought in the Mediterranean region. For this reason, to adapt to water deficit scenarios, deficit irrigation applications are increasing in importance. The aim of this research was to determine the effect of varying levels of irrigation on growth parameters and concentration of nutrients in tomato plants grown under greenhouse conditions. The irrigation schedule used in this study was designed to include 100% (control), 90%, 80% and 70% of evaporation from the class-A pan. Water deficit was found to cause a stress effect in tomato plants, which was reflected in changes in the physiological function plants, such as flowering and early ripening. In addition, the SPAD values were examined, for which the lowest value of the green color intensity of the leaves was 47.3 (I3) and the highest was 48.7 (I4). However, the results of statistical analyses show that the difference was not significant. We also observed that the height values of tomato plants were the highest in the period of seedling and fruit ripening under full irrigation. Furthermore, analysis of the macronutrient content of tomato leaves showed that the obtained values were below the threshold values recommended for manganese. Based on these and similar studies, we believe that the application of water stress is most effective during the phases in which the plants are least affected. We believe that determining the periods during which tomato or any other crop is be affected by the least water stress will be more accurate for both plant development and economic production.
Increasing the world population will increase the demand for new energy sources in the future. Waste generated as a result of agricultural activities can be considered as a sustainable energy source. Animal manure that occurs from livestock activities can be shown as an energy source if managed properly. Antalya province and its region, where agriculture and tourism are intense, have been chosen as the study area. In the study, taking into account the data of Turkey Statistical Institute in 2019, for cattle animal breeding the numbers of dairy and beef cattle; for ovine animal breeding the numbers of sheep and goats; for poultry, the numbers of laying hen, turkeys, geese and duck were evaluated. Manure amounts and potential biogas energy values were calculated considering the animal numbers of Antalya province in 2019. The amount of electricity and natural gas energy that can be obtained in this potential biogas energy is also calculated. The obtained results are compared with the relevant literature and calculations are made for the existing biogas potential. As a result of the research, it was calculated that the amount of manure that can be obtained from animal waste in Antalya province could be 3,821.86 million kg and the potential biogas energy could be 45.57 million MJ. It has been calculated that the total amount of biogas that can be obtained is equivalent to approximately 253.23 million kWh of electrical energy or 43.90 million m 3 of natural gas energy. As a result, considering the energy need of Antalya province, it can be said that an economic gain can be achieved by utilizing animal wastes for energy production.
This study was carried out to determine the environmental awareness levels of agricultural enterprises in the province of Batman and its districts where greenhouse production was carried out in 2020. With this purpose, and based on simple random sampling method, information was obtained from 75 producers in 15 villages, 5 randomly selected villages from three districts (Central, Besiri, Sason), using a 37-question survey method and the results have been evaluated as a percentage (%). With this study, it has been determined that the education level of the greenhouse producers is high, most of them have non-agricultural income and the amount of their income is above the hunger limit. Greenhouse producers take advice from vendors and the District Directorate of Agriculture and Forestry to determine pesticide selection and pesticide dosage. They reported that the producers pay attention to important factors in the selection of pesticides like brand and active substance, they do not use the same pesticide against the same disease and pest continuously, they apply the recommended dose before the disease and pest appears, that the pesticides they use leave residues in the product, they pay attention to the waiting time between spraying and harvest, they reported that they use protective clothing and masks, do not throw empty pesticide boxes on the field or roadside, clean the spraying tool, but they said that they have use the spraying tool without calibration and applied pesticides as a mixture. However, it has been determined that they prefer cultural methods in addition to chemical methods and they are not aware of the concept of biopesticide. Farmers generally prefer chemical warfare methods to overcome plant protection problems, and mistaken pesticide applications bring many negative effects in terms of human and environmental health.
The main source of income is livestock, and the most cultivated plant is pistachio (Pistacia vera) for agricultural purposes in Siirt and districts. Dry agriculture is practiced due to lackness of water sources and rainfall in the province. This limits the possibilities of generating income. The province is not sufficient in terms of agricultural production and migration from rural to other provinces is seen as a big social problem. In order to prevent this problem, agricultural supports have been increased and projects have been supported by government. However, greenhouse cultivation has not been adopted well enough in the region due to the fact that the climatic conditions are not perfectly suitable and the appropriate locations are not selected in the projects. In this study, appropriate location analyzes for greenhouses (climate and topography) were mapped with the geographical information system. In this way, it is aimed to increase the existing potential of the greenhouses of the province. An analysis was performed on open source QuantumGIS software during the study. The bioclimatic raster data set containing the climate data for the are were obtained from the World climate database. These sets, which contain temperature and precipitation data, are resolution 30 arc-seconds 1 km 2. After the formation of raster maps containing temperature and rainfall values for the region, the climatic data are separated into three categories as suitable, partly suitable and unsuitable classes. In order to determine suitable areas, climate and structural features required for the greenhouse were obtained from the literature and the raster analysis was made. According to the results of the study, City center, Kurtalan, and Baykan were considered partially suitable for greenhouse cultivation and other districts were not suitable. However, due to the snow and wind loads that may occur in these districts, It has been found that greenhouses need to be constructed with structurally reinforced profiles and alternative energy sources are necessary for heating greenhouses. With the maps created by QuantumGIS, the areas that are currently being used for greenhouses are overlapping with results. In addition, according to the results of this study, structural and practical recommendations were made for the producers in the region.
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