Widely expressed in the brain, the ␣4␤2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) is proposed to play a major role in the mechanisms that lead to and maintain nicotine addiction. Using the patch-clamp technique and pharmacological protocols, we examined the consequences of long-term exposure to 0.1-10 M nicotine in K-177 cells expressing the major human brain ␣4␤2 receptor. The acetylcholine dose-response curves are biphasic and revealed both a high-and a low-affinity component with apparent EC 50 values of 1.6 and 62 M. Ratios of receptors in the high-and low-affinity components are 25 and 75%, respectively. Chronic exposure to nicotine or nicotinic antagonists [dihydro-␤-erytroidine (DH␤E) or methyllycaconitine (MLA)] increases the fraction of high-affinity receptors up to 70%. Upregulated acetylcholine-evoked currents increase by twofold or more and are less sensitive to desensitization. Functional upregulation is independent of protein synthesis as shown by the lack of effect of 20 M cycloheximide. Single-channel currents recorded with 100 nM acetylcholine show predominantly high conductances (38.8 and 43.4 pS), whereas additional smaller conductances (16.7 and 23.5 pS) were observed with 30 M acetylcholine. In addition, long-term exposure to dihydro-␤-erytroidine increases up to three times the frequency of channel openings. These data indicate, in contrast to previous studies, that human ␣4␤2 nAChRs are functionally upregulated by chronic nicotine exposure.

Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by severe behavioral, cognitive, and motor deficits. Since the discovery of the huntingtin gene (HTT) mutation that causes the disease, several mouse lines have been developed using different gene constructs of Htt. Recently, a new model, the zQ175 knock-in (KI) mouse, was developed (see description by Menalled et al, [1]) in an attempt to have the Htt gene in a context and causing a phenotype that more closely mimics HD in humans. Here we confirm the behavioral phenotypes reported by Menalled et al [1], and extend the characterization to include brain volumetry, striatal metabolite concentration, and early neurophysiological changes. The overall reproducibility of the behavioral phenotype across the two independent laboratories demonstrates the utility of this new model. Further, important features reminiscent of human HD pathology are observed in zQ175 mice: compared to wild-type neurons, electrophysiological recordings from acute brain slices reveal that medium spiny neurons from zQ175 mice display a progressive hyperexcitability; glutamatergic transmission in the striatum is severely attenuated; decreased striatal and cortical volumes from 3 and 4 months of age in homo- and heterozygous mice, respectively, with whole brain volumes only decreased in homozygotes. MR spectroscopy reveals decreased concentrations of N-acetylaspartate and increased concentrations of glutamine, taurine and creatine + phosphocreatine in the striatum of 12-month old homozygotes, the latter also measured in 12-month-old heterozygotes. Motor, behavioral, and cognitive deficits in homozygotes occur concurrently with the structural and metabolic changes observed. In sum, the zQ175 KI model has robust behavioral, electrophysiological, and histopathological features that may be valuable in both furthering our understanding of HD-like pathophyisology and the evaluation of potential therapeutic strategies to slow the progression of disease.

We report that preapplication of ivermectin, in the micromolar range, strongly enhances the subsequent acetylcholine-evoked current of the neuronal chick or human alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors reconstituted in Xenopus laevis oocytes and K-28 cells. This potentiation does not result from nonspecific Cl- currents. The concomitant increase in apparent affinity and cooperativity of the dose-response curve suggest that ivermectin acts as a positive allosteric effector. This interpretation is supported by the observation of an increase in efficiency of a partial agonist associated with the potentiation and by the differential effect of ivermectin on mutants within the M2 channel domain. Ivermectin effects reveal a novel allosteric site for pharmacological agents on neuronal alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.

Nicotine addiction is initiated by its binding to high-affinity nicotinic receptors in brain composed primarily of ␣4 and ␤2 subunits. For nicotinic receptors expressed in vivo or heterologously, nicotine exposure over hours to days increases or "upregulates" high-affinity nicotine binding to receptors through a posttranslational mechanism thought to increase receptor numbers. Using heterologous expression, we find nicotine exposure causes a fourfold to sixfold higher binding to ␣4␤2 receptors that does not correspond with any significant change in the number of surface receptors or a change in the assembly, trafficking, or cell-surface turnover of the receptors. However, upregulation does alter the functional state of the receptor, slowing desensitization and enhancing sensitivity to acetylcholine. Based on these findings, we propose an alternative mechanism to explain nicotine-induced upregulation in which nicotine exposure slowly stabilizes ␣4␤2 receptors in a high-affinity state that is more easily activated, thereby providing a memory for nicotine exposure.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive death of cortical and spinal motor neurons, for which there is no effective treatment. Using a cell-based assay for compounds capable of preventing motor neuron cell death in vitro, a collection of approximately 40,000 low-molecular-weight compounds was screened to identify potential small-molecule therapeutics. We report the identification of cholest-4-en-3-one, oxime (TRO19622) as a potential drug candidate for the treatment of ALS. In vitro, TRO19622 promoted motor neuron survival in the absence of trophic support in a dose-dependent manner. In vivo, TRO19622 rescued motor neurons from axotomy-induced cell death in neonatal rats and promoted nerve regeneration following sciatic nerve crush in mice. In SOD1G93A transgenic mice, a model of familial ALS, TRO19622 treatment improved motor performance, delayed the onset of the clinical disease, and extended survival. TRO19622 bound directly to two components of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore: the voltage-dependent anion channel and the translocator protein 18 kDa (or peripheral benzodiazepine receptor), suggesting a potential mechanism for its neuroprotective activity. TRO19622 may have therapeutic potential for ALS and other motor neuron and neurodegenerative diseases.Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a rapidly progressive neurodegenerative disorder that selectively affects motor neurons in the spinal cord, brainstem, and cortex. ALS affects people of all races and ethnic backgrounds with an incidence approximately 2 per 100,000 individuals (McGuire and Nelson, 2006). The onset of ALS is most common in the 55 to 75 year age range, and incidence rises with advancing age; men have a higher risk of developing the disease than women (Nelson, 1995). Common clinical features of ALS include muscle weakness and fasciculations. These occur predominantly in limbs, although bulbar onset pathology can also lead to tongue atrophy and dysphagia. Failure of the respiratory muscles and cardiac complications are generally the fatal event, occurring within an average of 3 years of disease onset, with only a 5% chance of survival 5 years after diagnosis (del Aguila et al., 2003). Although 5 to 10% of ALS This work was supported by the Association Française contre les Myopathies.1 Current affiliation: Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, Columbia University, New York.Article, publication date, and citation information can be found at

A simple and versatile fabrication process is used to define conducting polymer microelectrode arrays (MEAs), patterning at the same time the recording electrodes as well as the insulating layer. Thanks to the low impedance of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) electrodes, these MEAs allow in vitro recording of action potentials from rat hippocampus slices.

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The cloning and expression of genes encoding for the human neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) has opened new possibilities for investigating their physiological and pharmacological properties. Cells (HEK 293) stably transfected with two of the major brain subunits, alpha4 and beta2, were characterized electrophysiologically using the patch-clamp technique. Fast application of the natural ligand ACh can evoke currents up to 3500 pA, with an apparent affinity (EC50) of 3 microM and a Hill coefficient of 1.2. The rank order of potency of four nAChR ligands to activate human alpha4beta2 receptors is (-)-nicotine > ACh > (-)-cytisine > ABT-418. At saturating concentrations, the efficacy of these ligands is ABT-418 >> (-)-nicotine > ACh >> (-)-cytisine > GTS-21 (previously named DMXB). Coapplication of 1 microM ACh with known nAChR inhibitors such as dihydro-beta-erythroidine and methyllycaconitine reversibly reduces the current evoked by the agonist with respective IC50 values of 80 nM and 1.5 microM. The current-voltage relationship of human alpha4beta2 displays a strong rectification at positive potentials. Experiments of ionic substitutions suggest that human alpha4beta2 nAChRs are permeable to sodium and potassium ions. In the "outside-out" configuration, ACh evokes unitary currents (main conductance 46 pS) characterized by a very fast rundown. Potentiation of the ACh-evoked currents is observed when the extracellular calcium concentration is increased from 0.2 to 2 mM. In contrast, however, a reduction of the evoked currents is observed when calcium concentration is elevated above 2 mM.