This paper designs a Malmquist productivity index (MPI) to measure the productivity change of a decision-making unit (DMU) on a specific input/output factor over time. First, factor-specific data envelopment analysis is extended by considering input/output substitution possibilities, where partial correlation is taken as the criterion of substitutability. Factors are clustered and those which are not in the same cluster with the concerned one are excluded when calculating the factorspecific efficiency. Next, the common weights global MPI is employed, in order to simultaneously have the sound properties of consistency, circularity and comparability. Common weights are generated separately for each DMU, since only the productivities of a same DMU at different periods need to be compared in the calculation process of MPI. The case of Taiwan forests after reorganization illustrates that the proposed models can provide new insights into the productivity change of DMUs.
Data assimilation (DA) for the non-differentiable parameterized moist physical processes is a complicated and difficult problem, which may result in the discontinuity of the cost function (CF) and the emergence of multiple extreme values. To solve the problem, this paper proposes an inner/outer loop ensemble-variational algorithm (I/OLEnVar) to DA. It uses several continuous sequences of local linear quadratic functions with single extreme values to approximate the actual nonlinear CF so as to have extreme point sequences of these functions converge to the global minimum of the nonlinear CF. This algorithm requires no adjoint model and no modification of the original nonlinear numerical model, so it is convenient and easy to design in assimilating the observational data during the non-differentiable process. Numerical experimental results of DA for the non-differentiable problem in moist physical processes indicate that the I/OLEnVar algorithm is feasible and effective. It can increase the assimilation accuracy and thus obtain satisfactory results. This algorithm lays the foundation for the application of I/OLEnVar method to the precipitation observational data assimilation in the numerical weather prediction (NWP) model.
The issue of order is the core of international relations. Both the dimensions of history and reality should be explored in order that the relationship between Japan and the world should be acknowledged in a scientific way. This paper analyzes Japan’s cognition and practice from such three aspects as the evolution of Japan’s view of international orders from a historical perspective, the post-war international order and “the crisis of liberal international order” and Japan’s responses to the international order under the ongoing unprecedented changes in the world. Based on principles of pragmatism, Japan strove to maintain its independence while expressing its respect with the order within the framework of the Hua-Yi Order. In face of the impact of rising Western civilization, Japan attempted to extricate itself from and overthrew the Hua-Yi Order and achieve the objective of “leaving Asia and embracing Europe,” and then turned from a follower of the Western dominant order into a challenger. After being defeated in WWII, the US occupation and the democratic transformation, Japan chose to accept and integrate into the liberal international order dominated by the US and gradually formed a unique view of international order through constantly sizing up the international situation, maintaining dynamic adjustment and making efforts to seek advantages and avoid disadvantages. Faced with the changing international relations nowadays, Japan has been committed to enhancing the “comprehensive strategic activity” and repairing the liberal international order in crisis. The relationship between Japan and the international order not only reflects historical continuity but also presents newly emerging characteristics.
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