BackgroundIndia is a patchwork of tribal and non-tribal populations that speak many different languages from various language families. Indo-European, spoken across northern and central India, and also in Pakistan and Bangladesh, has been frequently connected to the so-called “Indo-Aryan invasions” from Central Asia ~3.5 ka and the establishment of the caste system, but the extent of immigration at this time remains extremely controversial. South India, on the other hand, is dominated by Dravidian languages. India displays a high level of endogamy due to its strict social boundaries, and high genetic drift as a result of long-term isolation which, together with a very complex history, makes the genetic study of Indian populations challenging.ResultsWe have combined a detailed, high-resolution mitogenome analysis with summaries of autosomal data and Y-chromosome lineages to establish a settlement chronology for the Indian Subcontinent. Maternal lineages document the earliest settlement ~55–65 ka (thousand years ago), and major population shifts in the later Pleistocene that explain previous dating discrepancies and neutrality violation. Whilst current genome-wide analyses conflate all dispersals from Southwest and Central Asia, we were able to tease out from the mitogenome data distinct dispersal episodes dating from between the Last Glacial Maximum to the Bronze Age. Moreover, we found an extremely marked sex bias by comparing the different genetic systems.ConclusionsMaternal lineages primarily reflect earlier, pre-Holocene processes, and paternal lineages predominantly episodes within the last 10 ka. In particular, genetic influx from Central Asia in the Bronze Age was strongly male-driven, consistent with the patriarchal, patrilocal and patrilineal social structure attributed to the inferred pastoralist early Indo-European society. This was part of a much wider process of Indo-European expansion, with an ultimate source in the Pontic-Caspian region, which carried closely related Y-chromosome lineages, a smaller fraction of autosomal genome-wide variation and an even smaller fraction of mitogenomes across a vast swathe of Eurasia between 5 and 3.5 ka.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-017-0936-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

There has been a long-standing debate concerning the extent to which the spread of Neolithic ceramics and Malay-Polynesian languages in Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) were coupled to an agriculturally driven demic dispersal out of Taiwan 4000 years ago (4 ka). We previously addressed this question using founder analysis of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control-region sequences to identify major lineage clusters most likely to have dispersed from Taiwan into ISEA, proposing that the dispersal had a relatively minor impact on the extant genetic structure of ISEA, and that the role of agriculture in the expansion of the Austronesian languages was therefore likely to have been correspondingly minor. Here we test these conclusions by sequencing whole mtDNAs from across Taiwan and ISEA, using their higher chronological precision to resolve the overall proportion that participated in the “out-of-Taiwan” mid-Holocene dispersal as opposed to earlier, postglacial expansions in the Early Holocene. We show that, in total, about 20 % of mtDNA lineages in the modern ISEA pool result from the “out-of-Taiwan” dispersal, with most of the remainder signifying earlier processes, mainly due to sea-level rises after the Last Glacial Maximum. Notably, we show that every one of these founder clusters previously entered Taiwan from China, 6–7 ka, where rice-farming originated, and remained distinct from the indigenous Taiwanese population until after the subsequent dispersal into ISEA.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00439-016-1640-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

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Bagan is a major early urban center in Myanmar (Burma). Hundreds of Buddhist monuments were built there between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries A.D. The dating of activities earlier than this has until recently not been supported by scientific evidence. Part of Otein Taung, a "pottery hill" in the middle of the urban complex, has now been radiocarbon dated between A.D. 650 and 830. A new survey of the spread of "Pyu" fingermarked bricks has located these cultural markers, widespread in Myanmar in the first millennium A.D. , in more than 50 buildings at Bagan. This spatial and dating evidence suggests that before Bagan became a historically recorded economic and military power, and a key ritual center, it was a substantial settlement contemporaneous with some of Myanmar's distinctive first millennium "Pyu" sites.

Au premier millénaire de notre ère, avant l'arrivée de l'ethnie birmane, le centre de la Birmanie abrita un important système urbain. Les chercheurs comme le grand public connaissent sa culture sous le nom « Pyu ». Les traces écrites des Pyus prennent la forme d'inscriptions sur pierre ou d'autres supports, rédigées en trois langues, chacune dotée de son propre type de graphie indienne. Le pyu, langue vernaculaire de la famille sinotibétaine, domine ; mais le sanskrit et le pali, langues cosmopolitaines, sont également représentées. Cette étude présente le contexte archéologique du corpus épigraphique ainsi que l'histoire des recherches antérieures sur la langue pyu ; elle établit la méthode et la notation dont les recherches à venir pourront se servir pour analyser et représenter les données épigraphiques en pyu ; et elle résume ce que nos recherches nous ont permis jusqu'ici de mieux comprendre en matière de graphie et de langue pyu. Les connaissances dans ce domaine sont enrichies par le biais d'une édition avec analyse linguistique de l'inscription bilingue sanskrit-pyu du tertre de Kan Wet Khaung. Enfin, l'inventaire des inscriptions relevant de la culture pyu fixe un identifiant stable pour chaque entrée, en lien avec les données pertinentes (lieux de conservation, documentation visuelle, références, etc.).