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Intraspecific variation and trade-off in aerobic and anaerobic traits remain poorly understood in aquatic locomotion. Using gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulata), both axial swimmers, this study tested four hypotheses: (1) gait transition from steady to unsteady (i.e., burst-assisted) swimming is associated with anaerobic metabolism evidenced as excess post exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC); (2) variation in swimming performance (critical swimming speed; Ucrit) correlates with metabolic scope (MS) or anaerobic capacity (i.e., maximum EPOC); (3) there is a trade-off between maximum sustained swimming speed (Usus) and minimum cost of transport (COTmin); and (4) variation in Usus correlates positively with optimum swimming speed (Uopt; i.e., the speed that minimizes energy expenditure per unit of distance traveled). Data collection involved swimming respirometry and video analysis. Results showed that anaerobic swimming costs (i.e., EPOC) increase linearly with the number of bursts in S. aurata, with each burst corresponding to 0.53 mg O2 kg−1. Data are consistent with a previous study on striped surfperch (Embiotoca lateralis), a labriform swimmer, suggesting that the metabolic cost of burst swimming is similar across various types of locomotion. There was no correlation between Ucrit and MS or anaerobic capacity in S. aurata indicating that other factors, including morphological or biomechanical traits, influenced Ucrit. We found no evidence of a trade-off between Usus and COTmin. In fact, data revealed significant negative correlations between Usus and COTmin, suggesting that individuals with high Usus also exhibit low COTmin. Finally, there were positive correlations between Usus and Uopt. Our study demonstrates the energetic importance of anaerobic metabolism during unsteady swimming, and provides intraspecific evidence that superior maximum sustained swimming speed is associated with superior swimming economy and optimum speed.

Growth requires that energy is directed towards ingestion, digestion, absorption and assimilation of a meal; energy expenditures are often expressed as the specific dynamic action (SDA). While SDA is an important part of fish energy budgets and strongly affected by water temperature, temperature effects are not known across a wide temperature range in Atlantic cod Gadus morhua. The objective of this study was to examine effects of temperature (2, 5, 10, 15 or 20 °C) on the energetic cost and time used for SDA in juvenile G. morhua by intermittent flow respirometry. At each temperature, G. morhua were fed a meal of herring (Clupea harengus) corresponding to 5 % of the body mass. Standard metabolic rates measured pre-feeding and post-feeding metabolic rates were measured to determine SDA. The study showed that SDA coefficients (%, SDA energy divided by meal energy) were significantly lower at 2 and 10 °C (5.4-6.3 %) compared to 5, 15 and 20 °C (10.4-12.4 %), while SDA duration increased significantly from 80 h at 10 °C to 130-160 h at 2, 15 and 20 °C and reached a maximum of 250 h at 5 °C. The significant decrease in SDA duration at 10 °C combined with a low SDA coefficient suggests that water temperatures close to 10 °C may represent the optimum temperatures for SDA in this population of G. morhua. Our results suggest that SDA is not a simple function of temperature, but may vary with temperature in a more complex fashion.

Atlantic cod Gadus morhua experienced oxygen deficit ( D O 2 ) when exposed to oxygen levels below their critical level (c. 73% of pcrit) and subsequent excess post‐hypoxic oxygen consumption (CEPHO) upon return to normoxic conditions, indicative of an oxygen debt. The mean ± s.e. CEPHO: D O 2 was 6·9 ± 1·5, suggesting that resorting to anaerobic energy production in severe hypoxia is energetically expensive.

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Climate change is predicted to affect the aerobic capacity available for sustainable performances and fitness in fishes. This study reveals trade-offs between aerobic and anaerobic components of swimming performance and metabolic scope, and highlights the possibility of overestimating sustainable aerobic performances of fishes in relation to climate change.

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